SS- Chapter 22

Chapter 22: Peace with Problems

The US emerged from World War II as a superpower- they had the atom bomb, the economy wasn’t messed up…

During World War II, we were allies with Russia- we joined to fight a common enemy. By the end of the war though, we were opponents. The US viewed Russia as a threat, so the US began a policy of containment- to keep Communism controlled and not let it spread. It was as if an iron curtain had descended between the US and Russia. A main goal of containment was to help with money, for example:
1. Truman Doctrine- gave money to Greece and Turkey to help their governments remain strong and not fall to Communism.
2. Marshall Plan- gave money to any European country so long as they agreed to not be Communist. Gave them money to fight chaos, hunger and desperation.

Start of the Cold War-

The Cold War began in Germany at the end of World War II. Germany had been divided into four zones, each controlled by a different world power- France, Russia, England and the US. Berlin, the capital of Germany, which was in Russia’s zone, was also divided into four zones. A couple of years after the war was over, America, France and England decided that it’s time for Germany to be whole again and they gave up their rights in their zones. Russia, however, didn’t agree with this and did not give up their zone. Russia was angry and decided that in order to prove her power, she was going to blockade West Berlin (the part that was given up). The Allies responded by airlifting supplies to West Berlin for about a year. Every fourteen minuets, another plane took off to drop supplies until Russia finally backed off and lifted the blockade.

Russia took East Berlin and Germany as satellites. Now they would be Communist, just like Russia. At this point, America needed Allies and NATO was formed- an alliance of all non-Communist nations. Russia had the Warsaw Pact.

America worked on containment in Asia also:
1. China- in 1949, China became Communist. Until 1972, America didn’t recognize Red China as a country- they didn’t trade and didn’t have a seat in the UN. Taiwan was recognized in China’s place.
2. Korea- after World War II, was divided at 38° parallel. This was supposed to be a temporary division until things could be worked out. The north was controlled by Communist nations and the south was controlled by Western nations. Before things were worked out, the north invaded the south in an attempt to unite the whole Korea. The UN sent troops to help South Korea. These troops were predominately American, headed by General Douglas MacArthur. The fighting was very intense. One of the most serious events of the Korean War was when MacArthur and his troops reached all the way to the Yalu River. Then, the Chinese got involved and pushed them all the way back down again. Now, there was a difference of thought between Truman and MacArthur. Truman didn’t want a tremendous war so he told MacArthur to lay low- he doesn’t need the whole Korea, just to get the south back their territory- limited war. MacArthur was disobedient and as a result was relieved of his position. America tried to end the war. In 1951, the US stopped fighting. They didn’t sign a treaty until 1953, and when the treaty was signed, we were back at the 38° parallel. This war showed that the US is willing to go to war for containment.

Cold War at home-

The US believed in world freedom, but sometimes, freedoms are limited. In America, in 1950, freedoms were limited. There was now a Red Scare in America. America began to look within for Communists. The HUAC was set up to search for communists. This search continued for about thirty years. Many Americans were blacklisted- accused of being Communists- and as a result, they lost their jobs, their children couldn’t get jobs… The FBI, led by J. Edgar Hoover, was also involved in searching. They worked together with the HUAC.

In 1940, the US passed the Smith Act- you can’t speak or act against the government- it’s illegal. In 1951, the Supreme Court agreed with the Smith Act in Dennis vs. USA. Eugene Dennis was a Communist and the Supreme Court ruled that he could be jailed, fined and locked away.

In 1957, the Supreme Court weakened the Smith Act with two cases:
1. Watkins vs. USA- you can’t punish a witness who refuses to cooperate.
2. Yates vs. USA- you can only punish someone who advocates a direct action against the government.


In 1947, Truman formed the Loyalty Review Board- to review the loyalty of government members. Everyone was now under suspicion. Many government officials lost their jobs due to this:
1. Robert Oppenheimer - was accused, but found innocent. However, he was never given a pass to the Oval Office again.
2. Alger Hiss- an advisor to FDR. He was charged of being a Communist. A Communist member Winacker Chambers said that he knows that Hiss is a communist. There was a whole investigation. A young Republican, Richard Nixon, decided to investigate the case heavily. Hiss was found guilty.

In the midst of all this tension, a senator from Wisconsin, Joseph McCarthy decided to go on his own Communist hunt. He went on a rampage, frightening people with no facts. No one was safe from McCarthy- he accused everyone. He went so far as to accuse the army. He said that they’re not really protecting you. It was 1952 and the investigation was televised. The nation watched and realized that McCarthy was full of hot air. He lost the American people’s respect almost immediately. False, rash accusations are known as McCarthyisms.

In the midst of this tension, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of selling the secret of the atom bomb to the Russians. Over the years, people have tried to prove their innocence. They died by the electric chair.

In 1952, the US passed the McKaren- Walter Act- restricted immigration from Communist countries into America.

In 1952, Eisenhower became president. He continued the policy of containment. He went even further, saying that we’re going to use massive retaliation- we’ll fire back if we have to and go to war if we have to- Brinkmanship. The US was going to be very forceful against communism.

During the Fifties, the US entered an arms race with the Soviet Union. This arms race led to greater tension. The UN tried to limit the arms race. The US and the Soviet Union were also in a space race. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik- a satellite that orbited the earth. It was the first. The US also launched satellites.

The US continued their policy of containment in Asia. They were afraid of the Domino Theory- that if one country will fall to communism, others will follow. Those fears were true.

In the Middle East, the US containment policy continued.

The Eisenhower Doctrine gave money to Middle Eastern countries so that they shouldn’t fall to Communism. The US supported the Shah of Iran so that he should remain in power because the shah was not a communist.

In Egypt, Nasser became the prime minister. He nationalized all business- there was no longer European control. The US supported him, as did Russia so America backed down. Nasser took control of the Suez Canal- important waterway. The Suez Canal had been under French and English control. Now, Nasser nationalized it and said that Israel can’t use the canal. Israel, England and France attacked Egypt and took control of the canal. America got involved and said not to do this because they don’t want to go to war over this. America told Israel, England and France to back down, and they listened.

In Lebanon, the US sent troops to maintain peace.

In Latin America, since the Spanish- American war in 1898, America was heavily involved in Latin America. Latin America didn’t want the US because they felt that they were being bossed around. But America still continued its involvement. In 1958, Vice President Nixon went on a tour of Latin America and they threw eggs at him. This showed the lack of good relations between US and Latin America.

In 1959, Fidel Castro took over Cuba. At first, America supported Cuba, but then Castro nationalized American businesses in Cuba and did other things to anger America- limited human rights... so our involvement with Cuba was lessened. Now there was a communist nation off of our coast, which was scary. Many Cubans fled to America and added to our cultural mix.

During the 50s, our relationship with the Soviet Union was like a roller coaster- Stalin died and in 1953, Khrushchev took over. America thought that now they would be able to work things out with Khrushchev. The US worked on a plan called the Peaceful Coexistence- we respect each other’s differences. We tried to improve our relationship.

In 1955, there were rebellions against Russia in Poland and Hungary. The soviets crushed the rebellions ruthlessly, so our relationship got worse.

In 1959, our relationship improved. We invited Khrushchev to America and met in Camp David. Things were looking good. We agreed to meet again in 1960 at the Summit Meeting and talk about things, such as arms reduction. Just before the meeting, our relationship went downhill again as a result of the U-2 Incident- the U-2, an American spy plane, was shot down over Russian territory and the Russians said that they’re not coming to meet with spies.

Life during the 50’s-

During the 50’s, Eisenhower wanted to cut back on government spending and government involvement. He was president after FDR and Truman, who increased government involvement and spending. They did cut back on defense and foreign aid, but they didn’t cut back on their welfare programs- the New Deal and the Fair Deal programs.

Prosperity of the 50’s bypassed the farmers, so they were given subsidies to help them. Much of the rest of the country was doing well because America was excited to be consumers once again:
1. People hadn’t spent for years and were now excited to spend.
2. People now had money and were excited to spend it.
The 50’s are sometimes nickname the Good Old Days.

Because of all this spending, one area of growth was in the homes- there was now an explosion of suburbia. Levittown, NY was a suburb that sprung up over night. (It was named after John Levit.) It was a development and had laws of conformity in order to maintain sameness. In general, the 50’s were years of conformity and the 60’s were years of rebellion against this conformity.

Now, the automobile became a pleasure item, not just a functional item. It also helped the growth of suburbia because people could now drive to work. The government now passed the Federal Highway Act- gave $44,000 to build highways and to help the new vistas that the car was opening for us.

America was a nation on the move- people moved from the North Eastern cities to the sunny states, from the Rust Belt to the Sun Belt.

In the 1950’s, television became a household item. It was invented in the 30’s and broadcasting began in the 40’s.

African American civil rights movement-

Truman desegregated the armed forces in the 1940’s. The first time a black joined the MLB was Jackie Robinson, in 1947.

In 1953, Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He served until 1969. The Warren Court made many landmark rulings that changed America, such as Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas- this overturned an earlier ruling of Plessey vs. Ferguson of 1897. It stated that separate but equal is equal. It said that separate facilities are equal. Now, in 1954, this was changed. It was ruled that in education, separate but equal is not equal.

Many black parents wanted to send their children to local white schools- they didn’t want to send them far away to inferior black schools. One of these parents, Oliver Brown, wanted his daughter to go to the white school around the corner. The NAACP helped the African Americans bring their case to the Supreme Court.

The white southerners resisted this ruling. In Little Rock, Arkansas, nine teens enrolled in the central high school and they weren’t allowed in. Eisenhower reluctantly stepped in and told the Arkansas state troopers that they’re under his control. He issued them an executive order to let them into school. The Arkansas governor shut down the school at the end of the year. The south was totally separate.
Many blacks decided not to wait for new laws, but to disobey laws and bring change- civil disobedience. There were many cases of civil disobedience over the years. Civil disobedience is to disobey without using violence.

One of these cases was the Montgomery Bus Boycott- Rosa Parks was coming home from work and there were no seats in the black section of the bus, so she sat in the white section. She was asked to leave, but she refused so they pulled her off the bus. This caused a reaction amongst the blacks- they decided to boycott the busses in Montgomery, Alabama. This boycott lasted for 381 days and made a statement. At the end of the boycott, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on busses is illegal.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. emerged from the Montgomery Bus Boycott as the leader of the Civil Rights movement. He was a dynamic speaker. His mentor was Mohandas Gandhi.

In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act- was supposed to end segregation. It had limited effectiveness, but was the start of change. Many civil rights had a hard time getting passed because the Congressmen didn’t want to pass them. Many Congressmen would filibuster to stop the laws from being passed.

The move for civil rights and civil disobedience continued into the 60’s.

Different situation in the Civil Rights movement:
1. James Meredith- was a retired air force worker. He was black and wanted to enroll in the University of Mississippi. He was not allowed in, so he forced himself in. There were riots on both sides. The Federal government helped him enroll and for the duration of his stay there, he had a bodyguard.
2. Greensboro, North Carolina- a group of black youth decided to protest the segregation in all areas. They sat on white busses, went to white parks and sat at white lunch counters in white restaurants.
As the movement grew, whites joined the blacks to fight segregation. Some whites sponsored freedom riders- passes for blacks to go on white busses. Many were slaughtered or dragged off of the busses.
3. Birmingham, Alabama- there were efforts to desegregate the city. Blacks made a huge march. The police wanted to end the march, so they set dogs on the marchers and shot hoses at them. They jailed about 2,000 people and amongst them was Dr. King. There in jail, he wrote “Letters from a Birmingham Jail”, in which he discussed his principles of civil disobedience and his desire for equality. This protest was televised and people were shocked at how the blacks were treated- helped support the Civil Rights movement.
4. Medgar Evers- worked for the NAACP and he was killed outside of his home in Mississippi by white supremacists.
5. University of Alabama- in 1963, Governor Wallace didn’t allow for black students to enroll. Kennedy, who was president at this time, pressured him to allow them in.
6. President Kennedy spoke to the nation about the need for civil rights- he said they have to do something to help these people. This was the first time that the president spoke publicly about the Civil Rights movement. He discussed passing the Civil Rights bill – to help the African Americans gain equality.
In support of this bill, the blacks organized a huge march in Washington D.C. Whites marched alongside the blacks. It was at this march that King made his famous “I have a dream” speech. Not everyone believed in King’s dream. A few weeks after this march, there was a bomb in an African American church, killing four black girls.

In November of 1963, Kennedy was assassinated and his vice president, Lynden B. Johnson, took over. He pushed heavily to get the Civil Rights Act passed. In 1964 it was passed. It stated:
1. Voting protection
2. Opening of all public facilities
3. Commission was set up for equal job opportunities.
The Supreme Court backed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the Heart of Atlanta Motel vs. USA- no segregation in interstate businesses.

Blacks still felt that they didn’t have total voting rights. The 24th amendment abolished the poll tax to fix this.

The blacks organized a march:
1. To get blacks out to vote and make them aware about voting.
2. To make whites aware that blacks are going to vote.
The march was from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery, Alabama.

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 got rid of the literacy test and stated that the Attorney General can punish anyone who denies the blacks the right to vote.

The summer of 1964 was the highlight of the Civil Rights movement- from that point and onward, the Civil Rights movement went downhill. Blacks felt that civil disobedience isn’t working and they want to fight. Malcolm X was a more militant leader. He felt that the whites were unnecessary. He said that they’ll have a black identity and nationalism. Later, he went to Mecca and became a Muslim, changing his style somewhat. He was shot in during a NY rally.

In the late 60’s, there were riots across America. The Kerner Commission was set to discuss why the blacks are fighting. It was decided that it’s because they are angry.

Dr. King won the Noble Peace Prize for furtherance of brotherhood amongst men. Dr. King remained a powerful speaker even after splits in the Civil Rights movement. In spring of 1968, he was speaking in Memphis, Tennessee for striking sanitation workers and the next morning he was shot. His death was both sad and ironic.

A couple of months later, Robert F. Kennedy (President Kennedy’s brother) was campaigning for president and he was assassinated. The feeling now was one of disillusionment.

The Woman’s Rights movement has been going on since the 1800’s, since the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Many women felt that there was a glass sealing which was keeping them from getting higher end jobs.

In 1963m Bett Friedan wrote the “Feminine Mystique”- felt that since World War II, women are pushed out of men’s jobs. She wrote that many women want to get out of the home and want more to their lives. She and her book spurred on the feminist movement of the 60’s and 70’s. The term “Ms.” now became envogue.

Steps toward equality for woman-
1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 stated that you can’t discriminate by race or gender.
2. In 1966, the National Organization for Woman was formed. It worked to pass laws for woman. NOW is still a powerful lobby group today.
3. ERA- woman campaigned for an amendment to the constitution stating that woman and men are equal. It was passed in Congress in 1972. In 1982, it failed to become an amendment in the State. ERA brought much controversy- many people opposed it. Phyllis Schlafy was against it. She said that you don’t need an amendment to settle some women’s inferiority complex.
4. Equal Opportunity Act- stated that woman want equal pay for equal work. It passed in 1972.
5. Roe vs. Wade- argued women’s right to abortion. It was said that a women’s body is her own private domain and she could decide. Only up to the sixth month can a woman go pro choice or pro life.

In order to help woman and other minorities, Johnson began Affirmative Action Programs- positive steps to help the minorities. He will make sure that every job and university will accept some minorities.

Some people fought affirmative action because it causes reverse discrimination- whites being discriminated. One person who felt this way was Alan Bakke- he felt he was suffering for reverse discrimination. He felt that he didn’t get into college because blacks got in instead. In the University of California vs. Alan Bakke, they said that yes, his civil rights may have been abridged, but nevertheless, affirmative action is constitutional.

Three other groups that fought for equal rights:
1. Latinos- Spanish speaking people. Many were migrant farmers- work by the season, moving from place to place. Their lives are difficult and the pay is minimal. Cesar Chavez helped the migrant farmers. He worked through legislation to get them some benefits and equality.
2. Native Americans/ American Indians- wanted rights. The formed the American Indian Movement (AIM). This was going to:
a. Restore “red power”- pride to their heritage.
b. Worked with the government to get back all their lands. They brought many cases and won- got back many lands.
3. Disabled Americans- over the years, America has worked to help handicapped people, but in the 60’s and onward, they really made great strides:
a. Kennedy set up a commission to study the problems of the mentally handicapped.
b. Backed the establishment of the Special Olympics.
c. In 1975, passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act.
d. In 1990, passed the Americans with Disabilities Act- forbade discrimination against people with disabilities in the workforce, public facilities, busses, education, parks…
In recent years, this issue received more publicity through actors, actresses…

Domestic policies of Kennedy and Johnson-

Kennedy was the youngest man elected as president and the only Catholic president (everyone else was Protestant) until Obama. He used his youth in his favor- he said that he understands the people’s needs. He was the first televised president and the first to have a televised debate. He looked exciting on TV, as opposed to Nixon, who looked like a fluke. The nation was excited to have a young couple in the White House. People wanted to copy the young couple. In November of 1963, the Kennedys were campaigning in Dallas, Texas in an open motorcade and Lee Harvey Oswald shot Kennedy.
Two domestic programs:
1. Kennedy- New Frontier
a. Space Program- to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. This was successful. In the summer of 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped onto the moon. As a result of the Space Program, there was an increase of science and math in all schools. They started the students when they were young so that they could find the minds that could be the nation’s rocket scientists. There was also an increase in money for space projects. The program cost about $25 billion.
b. Peace Corps- an effort to help poor nations. Young Americans between the ages of 18-25 went to developing countries to help them.
2. Johnson- Great Society
a. Volunteers In Service To America (VISTA)- young college students helped poor American children- helping within America.
b. Office of Economic Opportunity- economic opportunities for every American:
i. Project Head Start- takes low income children and gives them a head start. Gave free education for three to five year olds.
ii. Upward Bound- gives high school students financial aid to get into college.
iii. Job Corps- to find high school dropouts jobs.
c. Elementary and Secondary School Act- gave money to elementary and secondary schools in particular in low income neighborhoods.
d. Medicare- insurance for the elderly- those over 65.
e. Department of Housing and Urban Development gives housing, money for rent, and built houses for low income people.
f. Food Stamp Program- money for food for low income families. To initiate this program, Johnson passed the Food Stamp Act in 1964. In October of 2008, the food stamp program changed its name to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). There were 29 million Americans on Food stamps in 2008- 10% of nation. Two months ago, Obama changed the program- up until now had to be eligible for food stamps- can’t have any savings. Now Obama changed it that you can have up to $100,000 in savings and still be eligible for food stamps.

Foreign Policies of America-
1. Monroe Doctrine- in 1824, the Monroe Doctrine was issued. It stated that America is in charge of the Western hemisphere and Europe should stay out. This set our policy in the western hemisphere.
2. Spanish- American war- in 1898, the US fought the Spanish and won. This victory gave us many of Spain’s colonies in Latin America and elsewhere. One is Puerto Rico. Cuba became a protectorate. America now became an imperial nation.
3. Panama Canal- 1901- 1914. America wanted to build a canal in Panama, so they helped the people in Panama rebel against Columbia and after they gained their independence, the US built a canal in Panama. America wanted canal for trade reasons- it cut from the Atlantic to the Pacific and helped with trade. America had control of the canal till the end of the 1900s. In 1999, we gave the canal back to Panama.
4. Roosevelt corollary/ Bigstick policy- it was an addition to the Monroe doctrine- that the US will get involved in Latin America whenever Latin America does something that America feels is wrong. There was a cartoon at this time showing Roosevelt dragging Latin America behind him- “speak softly and carry a big stick”.
5. Dollar diplomacy- Taft said that we’ll invest in Latin America and we’ll be very involved.
6. Roosevelt made the Good Neighbor policy- an effort to improve relations with Latin America.

Latin America and the 60’s-

Kennedy made the Alliance for Progress- promised Latin America $20 billion as long as they don’t become Communist.

1. Bay of Pigs Invasion- the US government wanted to overthrow Fidel Castro. The CIA, with the approval of Kennedy, trained American Cubans so that one day they could go back and overthrow Castro. These trained Cubans landed at the Bay of Pigs and Castro’s soldiers captured them all (there was a leak in the CIA, so Castro knew about the invasion). This was heavily embarrassing for America.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis- Cuba allowed Russia to build a missile base in Cuba. The US told Cuba to take the missiles down. This was the tensest moment in the Cold War. America was willing to go to the brink of war. Thankfully, the Cubans backed down and dismantled the missiles. America’s pride after the Bay of Pigs invasion was now restored.
3. In 1963, America, England and Russia agreed to nuclear to the Nuclear Test Ban treaty – they agreed to ban testing in the air and space, and agreed to only do it underground.
4. After the Bay of Pig invasion, Khrushchev asked America to get the NATO troops out of Berlin. He assumed that America would listen because they were weak after the Bay of Pigs fiasco. Kennedy didn’t listen, increased help to West Berlin. In response to American aid, Russia built the Berlin Wall through Berlin. The Berlin Wall stopped the flow of Germans from East Berlin to West Berlin. In 1963, Kennedy spoke at the Berlin Wall, saying that it’s a symbol of tyranny. It stood as the symbol of the Cold War, until 1989 when it was torn down at the end of the Cold War.

Important Supreme Court cases of 60’s and 70’s:

Courts in the 60’s and 70’s protected the rights of the accused. The courts were very liberal. Liberals protect the underdogs. President Eisenhower and later President Nixon appointed the two chief justices, Warren and Berger.