SS- Chapter 22

Chapter 22: Peace with Problems

The US emerged from World War II as a superpower- they had the atom bomb, the economy wasn’t messed up…

During World War II, we were allies with Russia- we joined to fight a common enemy. By the end of the war though, we were opponents. The US viewed Russia as a threat, so the US began a policy of containment- to keep Communism controlled and not let it spread. It was as if an iron curtain had descended between the US and Russia. A main goal of containment was to help with money, for example:
1. Truman Doctrine- gave money to Greece and Turkey to help their governments remain strong and not fall to Communism.
2. Marshall Plan- gave money to any European country so long as they agreed to not be Communist. Gave them money to fight chaos, hunger and desperation.

Start of the Cold War-

The Cold War began in Germany at the end of World War II. Germany had been divided into four zones, each controlled by a different world power- France, Russia, England and the US. Berlin, the capital of Germany, which was in Russia’s zone, was also divided into four zones. A couple of years after the war was over, America, France and England decided that it’s time for Germany to be whole again and they gave up their rights in their zones. Russia, however, didn’t agree with this and did not give up their zone. Russia was angry and decided that in order to prove her power, she was going to blockade West Berlin (the part that was given up). The Allies responded by airlifting supplies to West Berlin for about a year. Every fourteen minuets, another plane took off to drop supplies until Russia finally backed off and lifted the blockade.

Russia took East Berlin and Germany as satellites. Now they would be Communist, just like Russia. At this point, America needed Allies and NATO was formed- an alliance of all non-Communist nations. Russia had the Warsaw Pact.

America worked on containment in Asia also:
1. China- in 1949, China became Communist. Until 1972, America didn’t recognize Red China as a country- they didn’t trade and didn’t have a seat in the UN. Taiwan was recognized in China’s place.
2. Korea- after World War II, was divided at 38° parallel. This was supposed to be a temporary division until things could be worked out. The north was controlled by Communist nations and the south was controlled by Western nations. Before things were worked out, the north invaded the south in an attempt to unite the whole Korea. The UN sent troops to help South Korea. These troops were predominately American, headed by General Douglas MacArthur. The fighting was very intense. One of the most serious events of the Korean War was when MacArthur and his troops reached all the way to the Yalu River. Then, the Chinese got involved and pushed them all the way back down again. Now, there was a difference of thought between Truman and MacArthur. Truman didn’t want a tremendous war so he told MacArthur to lay low- he doesn’t need the whole Korea, just to get the south back their territory- limited war. MacArthur was disobedient and as a result was relieved of his position. America tried to end the war. In 1951, the US stopped fighting. They didn’t sign a treaty until 1953, and when the treaty was signed, we were back at the 38° parallel. This war showed that the US is willing to go to war for containment.

Cold War at home-

The US believed in world freedom, but sometimes, freedoms are limited. In America, in 1950, freedoms were limited. There was now a Red Scare in America. America began to look within for Communists. The HUAC was set up to search for communists. This search continued for about thirty years. Many Americans were blacklisted- accused of being Communists- and as a result, they lost their jobs, their children couldn’t get jobs… The FBI, led by J. Edgar Hoover, was also involved in searching. They worked together with the HUAC.

In 1940, the US passed the Smith Act- you can’t speak or act against the government- it’s illegal. In 1951, the Supreme Court agreed with the Smith Act in Dennis vs. USA. Eugene Dennis was a Communist and the Supreme Court ruled that he could be jailed, fined and locked away.

In 1957, the Supreme Court weakened the Smith Act with two cases:
1. Watkins vs. USA- you can’t punish a witness who refuses to cooperate.
2. Yates vs. USA- you can only punish someone who advocates a direct action against the government.


In 1947, Truman formed the Loyalty Review Board- to review the loyalty of government members. Everyone was now under suspicion. Many government officials lost their jobs due to this:
1. Robert Oppenheimer - was accused, but found innocent. However, he was never given a pass to the Oval Office again.
2. Alger Hiss- an advisor to FDR. He was charged of being a Communist. A Communist member Winacker Chambers said that he knows that Hiss is a communist. There was a whole investigation. A young Republican, Richard Nixon, decided to investigate the case heavily. Hiss was found guilty.

In the midst of all this tension, a senator from Wisconsin, Joseph McCarthy decided to go on his own Communist hunt. He went on a rampage, frightening people with no facts. No one was safe from McCarthy- he accused everyone. He went so far as to accuse the army. He said that they’re not really protecting you. It was 1952 and the investigation was televised. The nation watched and realized that McCarthy was full of hot air. He lost the American people’s respect almost immediately. False, rash accusations are known as McCarthyisms.

In the midst of this tension, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of selling the secret of the atom bomb to the Russians. Over the years, people have tried to prove their innocence. They died by the electric chair.

In 1952, the US passed the McKaren- Walter Act- restricted immigration from Communist countries into America.

In 1952, Eisenhower became president. He continued the policy of containment. He went even further, saying that we’re going to use massive retaliation- we’ll fire back if we have to and go to war if we have to- Brinkmanship. The US was going to be very forceful against communism.

During the Fifties, the US entered an arms race with the Soviet Union. This arms race led to greater tension. The UN tried to limit the arms race. The US and the Soviet Union were also in a space race. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik- a satellite that orbited the earth. It was the first. The US also launched satellites.

The US continued their policy of containment in Asia. They were afraid of the Domino Theory- that if one country will fall to communism, others will follow. Those fears were true.

In the Middle East, the US containment policy continued.

The Eisenhower Doctrine gave money to Middle Eastern countries so that they shouldn’t fall to Communism. The US supported the Shah of Iran so that he should remain in power because the shah was not a communist.

In Egypt, Nasser became the prime minister. He nationalized all business- there was no longer European control. The US supported him, as did Russia so America backed down. Nasser took control of the Suez Canal- important waterway. The Suez Canal had been under French and English control. Now, Nasser nationalized it and said that Israel can’t use the canal. Israel, England and France attacked Egypt and took control of the canal. America got involved and said not to do this because they don’t want to go to war over this. America told Israel, England and France to back down, and they listened.

In Lebanon, the US sent troops to maintain peace.

In Latin America, since the Spanish- American war in 1898, America was heavily involved in Latin America. Latin America didn’t want the US because they felt that they were being bossed around. But America still continued its involvement. In 1958, Vice President Nixon went on a tour of Latin America and they threw eggs at him. This showed the lack of good relations between US and Latin America.

In 1959, Fidel Castro took over Cuba. At first, America supported Cuba, but then Castro nationalized American businesses in Cuba and did other things to anger America- limited human rights... so our involvement with Cuba was lessened. Now there was a communist nation off of our coast, which was scary. Many Cubans fled to America and added to our cultural mix.

During the 50s, our relationship with the Soviet Union was like a roller coaster- Stalin died and in 1953, Khrushchev took over. America thought that now they would be able to work things out with Khrushchev. The US worked on a plan called the Peaceful Coexistence- we respect each other’s differences. We tried to improve our relationship.

In 1955, there were rebellions against Russia in Poland and Hungary. The soviets crushed the rebellions ruthlessly, so our relationship got worse.

In 1959, our relationship improved. We invited Khrushchev to America and met in Camp David. Things were looking good. We agreed to meet again in 1960 at the Summit Meeting and talk about things, such as arms reduction. Just before the meeting, our relationship went downhill again as a result of the U-2 Incident- the U-2, an American spy plane, was shot down over Russian territory and the Russians said that they’re not coming to meet with spies.

Life during the 50’s-

During the 50’s, Eisenhower wanted to cut back on government spending and government involvement. He was president after FDR and Truman, who increased government involvement and spending. They did cut back on defense and foreign aid, but they didn’t cut back on their welfare programs- the New Deal and the Fair Deal programs.

Prosperity of the 50’s bypassed the farmers, so they were given subsidies to help them. Much of the rest of the country was doing well because America was excited to be consumers once again:
1. People hadn’t spent for years and were now excited to spend.
2. People now had money and were excited to spend it.
The 50’s are sometimes nickname the Good Old Days.

Because of all this spending, one area of growth was in the homes- there was now an explosion of suburbia. Levittown, NY was a suburb that sprung up over night. (It was named after John Levit.) It was a development and had laws of conformity in order to maintain sameness. In general, the 50’s were years of conformity and the 60’s were years of rebellion against this conformity.

Now, the automobile became a pleasure item, not just a functional item. It also helped the growth of suburbia because people could now drive to work. The government now passed the Federal Highway Act- gave $44,000 to build highways and to help the new vistas that the car was opening for us.

America was a nation on the move- people moved from the North Eastern cities to the sunny states, from the Rust Belt to the Sun Belt.

In the 1950’s, television became a household item. It was invented in the 30’s and broadcasting began in the 40’s.

African American civil rights movement-

Truman desegregated the armed forces in the 1940’s. The first time a black joined the MLB was Jackie Robinson, in 1947.

In 1953, Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He served until 1969. The Warren Court made many landmark rulings that changed America, such as Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas- this overturned an earlier ruling of Plessey vs. Ferguson of 1897. It stated that separate but equal is equal. It said that separate facilities are equal. Now, in 1954, this was changed. It was ruled that in education, separate but equal is not equal.

Many black parents wanted to send their children to local white schools- they didn’t want to send them far away to inferior black schools. One of these parents, Oliver Brown, wanted his daughter to go to the white school around the corner. The NAACP helped the African Americans bring their case to the Supreme Court.

The white southerners resisted this ruling. In Little Rock, Arkansas, nine teens enrolled in the central high school and they weren’t allowed in. Eisenhower reluctantly stepped in and told the Arkansas state troopers that they’re under his control. He issued them an executive order to let them into school. The Arkansas governor shut down the school at the end of the year. The south was totally separate.
Many blacks decided not to wait for new laws, but to disobey laws and bring change- civil disobedience. There were many cases of civil disobedience over the years. Civil disobedience is to disobey without using violence.

One of these cases was the Montgomery Bus Boycott- Rosa Parks was coming home from work and there were no seats in the black section of the bus, so she sat in the white section. She was asked to leave, but she refused so they pulled her off the bus. This caused a reaction amongst the blacks- they decided to boycott the busses in Montgomery, Alabama. This boycott lasted for 381 days and made a statement. At the end of the boycott, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on busses is illegal.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. emerged from the Montgomery Bus Boycott as the leader of the Civil Rights movement. He was a dynamic speaker. His mentor was Mohandas Gandhi.

In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act- was supposed to end segregation. It had limited effectiveness, but was the start of change. Many civil rights had a hard time getting passed because the Congressmen didn’t want to pass them. Many Congressmen would filibuster to stop the laws from being passed.

The move for civil rights and civil disobedience continued into the 60’s.

Different situation in the Civil Rights movement:
1. James Meredith- was a retired air force worker. He was black and wanted to enroll in the University of Mississippi. He was not allowed in, so he forced himself in. There were riots on both sides. The Federal government helped him enroll and for the duration of his stay there, he had a bodyguard.
2. Greensboro, North Carolina- a group of black youth decided to protest the segregation in all areas. They sat on white busses, went to white parks and sat at white lunch counters in white restaurants.
As the movement grew, whites joined the blacks to fight segregation. Some whites sponsored freedom riders- passes for blacks to go on white busses. Many were slaughtered or dragged off of the busses.
3. Birmingham, Alabama- there were efforts to desegregate the city. Blacks made a huge march. The police wanted to end the march, so they set dogs on the marchers and shot hoses at them. They jailed about 2,000 people and amongst them was Dr. King. There in jail, he wrote “Letters from a Birmingham Jail”, in which he discussed his principles of civil disobedience and his desire for equality. This protest was televised and people were shocked at how the blacks were treated- helped support the Civil Rights movement.
4. Medgar Evers- worked for the NAACP and he was killed outside of his home in Mississippi by white supremacists.
5. University of Alabama- in 1963, Governor Wallace didn’t allow for black students to enroll. Kennedy, who was president at this time, pressured him to allow them in.
6. President Kennedy spoke to the nation about the need for civil rights- he said they have to do something to help these people. This was the first time that the president spoke publicly about the Civil Rights movement. He discussed passing the Civil Rights bill – to help the African Americans gain equality.
In support of this bill, the blacks organized a huge march in Washington D.C. Whites marched alongside the blacks. It was at this march that King made his famous “I have a dream” speech. Not everyone believed in King’s dream. A few weeks after this march, there was a bomb in an African American church, killing four black girls.

In November of 1963, Kennedy was assassinated and his vice president, Lynden B. Johnson, took over. He pushed heavily to get the Civil Rights Act passed. In 1964 it was passed. It stated:
1. Voting protection
2. Opening of all public facilities
3. Commission was set up for equal job opportunities.
The Supreme Court backed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the Heart of Atlanta Motel vs. USA- no segregation in interstate businesses.

Blacks still felt that they didn’t have total voting rights. The 24th amendment abolished the poll tax to fix this.

The blacks organized a march:
1. To get blacks out to vote and make them aware about voting.
2. To make whites aware that blacks are going to vote.
The march was from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery, Alabama.

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 got rid of the literacy test and stated that the Attorney General can punish anyone who denies the blacks the right to vote.

The summer of 1964 was the highlight of the Civil Rights movement- from that point and onward, the Civil Rights movement went downhill. Blacks felt that civil disobedience isn’t working and they want to fight. Malcolm X was a more militant leader. He felt that the whites were unnecessary. He said that they’ll have a black identity and nationalism. Later, he went to Mecca and became a Muslim, changing his style somewhat. He was shot in during a NY rally.

In the late 60’s, there were riots across America. The Kerner Commission was set to discuss why the blacks are fighting. It was decided that it’s because they are angry.

Dr. King won the Noble Peace Prize for furtherance of brotherhood amongst men. Dr. King remained a powerful speaker even after splits in the Civil Rights movement. In spring of 1968, he was speaking in Memphis, Tennessee for striking sanitation workers and the next morning he was shot. His death was both sad and ironic.

A couple of months later, Robert F. Kennedy (President Kennedy’s brother) was campaigning for president and he was assassinated. The feeling now was one of disillusionment.

The Woman’s Rights movement has been going on since the 1800’s, since the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Many women felt that there was a glass sealing which was keeping them from getting higher end jobs.

In 1963m Bett Friedan wrote the “Feminine Mystique”- felt that since World War II, women are pushed out of men’s jobs. She wrote that many women want to get out of the home and want more to their lives. She and her book spurred on the feminist movement of the 60’s and 70’s. The term “Ms.” now became envogue.

Steps toward equality for woman-
1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 stated that you can’t discriminate by race or gender.
2. In 1966, the National Organization for Woman was formed. It worked to pass laws for woman. NOW is still a powerful lobby group today.
3. ERA- woman campaigned for an amendment to the constitution stating that woman and men are equal. It was passed in Congress in 1972. In 1982, it failed to become an amendment in the State. ERA brought much controversy- many people opposed it. Phyllis Schlafy was against it. She said that you don’t need an amendment to settle some women’s inferiority complex.
4. Equal Opportunity Act- stated that woman want equal pay for equal work. It passed in 1972.
5. Roe vs. Wade- argued women’s right to abortion. It was said that a women’s body is her own private domain and she could decide. Only up to the sixth month can a woman go pro choice or pro life.

In order to help woman and other minorities, Johnson began Affirmative Action Programs- positive steps to help the minorities. He will make sure that every job and university will accept some minorities.

Some people fought affirmative action because it causes reverse discrimination- whites being discriminated. One person who felt this way was Alan Bakke- he felt he was suffering for reverse discrimination. He felt that he didn’t get into college because blacks got in instead. In the University of California vs. Alan Bakke, they said that yes, his civil rights may have been abridged, but nevertheless, affirmative action is constitutional.

Three other groups that fought for equal rights:
1. Latinos- Spanish speaking people. Many were migrant farmers- work by the season, moving from place to place. Their lives are difficult and the pay is minimal. Cesar Chavez helped the migrant farmers. He worked through legislation to get them some benefits and equality.
2. Native Americans/ American Indians- wanted rights. The formed the American Indian Movement (AIM). This was going to:
a. Restore “red power”- pride to their heritage.
b. Worked with the government to get back all their lands. They brought many cases and won- got back many lands.
3. Disabled Americans- over the years, America has worked to help handicapped people, but in the 60’s and onward, they really made great strides:
a. Kennedy set up a commission to study the problems of the mentally handicapped.
b. Backed the establishment of the Special Olympics.
c. In 1975, passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act.
d. In 1990, passed the Americans with Disabilities Act- forbade discrimination against people with disabilities in the workforce, public facilities, busses, education, parks…
In recent years, this issue received more publicity through actors, actresses…

Domestic policies of Kennedy and Johnson-

Kennedy was the youngest man elected as president and the only Catholic president (everyone else was Protestant) until Obama. He used his youth in his favor- he said that he understands the people’s needs. He was the first televised president and the first to have a televised debate. He looked exciting on TV, as opposed to Nixon, who looked like a fluke. The nation was excited to have a young couple in the White House. People wanted to copy the young couple. In November of 1963, the Kennedys were campaigning in Dallas, Texas in an open motorcade and Lee Harvey Oswald shot Kennedy.
Two domestic programs:
1. Kennedy- New Frontier
a. Space Program- to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. This was successful. In the summer of 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped onto the moon. As a result of the Space Program, there was an increase of science and math in all schools. They started the students when they were young so that they could find the minds that could be the nation’s rocket scientists. There was also an increase in money for space projects. The program cost about $25 billion.
b. Peace Corps- an effort to help poor nations. Young Americans between the ages of 18-25 went to developing countries to help them.
2. Johnson- Great Society
a. Volunteers In Service To America (VISTA)- young college students helped poor American children- helping within America.
b. Office of Economic Opportunity- economic opportunities for every American:
i. Project Head Start- takes low income children and gives them a head start. Gave free education for three to five year olds.
ii. Upward Bound- gives high school students financial aid to get into college.
iii. Job Corps- to find high school dropouts jobs.
c. Elementary and Secondary School Act- gave money to elementary and secondary schools in particular in low income neighborhoods.
d. Medicare- insurance for the elderly- those over 65.
e. Department of Housing and Urban Development gives housing, money for rent, and built houses for low income people.
f. Food Stamp Program- money for food for low income families. To initiate this program, Johnson passed the Food Stamp Act in 1964. In October of 2008, the food stamp program changed its name to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). There were 29 million Americans on Food stamps in 2008- 10% of nation. Two months ago, Obama changed the program- up until now had to be eligible for food stamps- can’t have any savings. Now Obama changed it that you can have up to $100,000 in savings and still be eligible for food stamps.

Foreign Policies of America-
1. Monroe Doctrine- in 1824, the Monroe Doctrine was issued. It stated that America is in charge of the Western hemisphere and Europe should stay out. This set our policy in the western hemisphere.
2. Spanish- American war- in 1898, the US fought the Spanish and won. This victory gave us many of Spain’s colonies in Latin America and elsewhere. One is Puerto Rico. Cuba became a protectorate. America now became an imperial nation.
3. Panama Canal- 1901- 1914. America wanted to build a canal in Panama, so they helped the people in Panama rebel against Columbia and after they gained their independence, the US built a canal in Panama. America wanted canal for trade reasons- it cut from the Atlantic to the Pacific and helped with trade. America had control of the canal till the end of the 1900s. In 1999, we gave the canal back to Panama.
4. Roosevelt corollary/ Bigstick policy- it was an addition to the Monroe doctrine- that the US will get involved in Latin America whenever Latin America does something that America feels is wrong. There was a cartoon at this time showing Roosevelt dragging Latin America behind him- “speak softly and carry a big stick”.
5. Dollar diplomacy- Taft said that we’ll invest in Latin America and we’ll be very involved.
6. Roosevelt made the Good Neighbor policy- an effort to improve relations with Latin America.

Latin America and the 60’s-

Kennedy made the Alliance for Progress- promised Latin America $20 billion as long as they don’t become Communist.

1. Bay of Pigs Invasion- the US government wanted to overthrow Fidel Castro. The CIA, with the approval of Kennedy, trained American Cubans so that one day they could go back and overthrow Castro. These trained Cubans landed at the Bay of Pigs and Castro’s soldiers captured them all (there was a leak in the CIA, so Castro knew about the invasion). This was heavily embarrassing for America.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis- Cuba allowed Russia to build a missile base in Cuba. The US told Cuba to take the missiles down. This was the tensest moment in the Cold War. America was willing to go to the brink of war. Thankfully, the Cubans backed down and dismantled the missiles. America’s pride after the Bay of Pigs invasion was now restored.
3. In 1963, America, England and Russia agreed to nuclear to the Nuclear Test Ban treaty – they agreed to ban testing in the air and space, and agreed to only do it underground.
4. After the Bay of Pig invasion, Khrushchev asked America to get the NATO troops out of Berlin. He assumed that America would listen because they were weak after the Bay of Pigs fiasco. Kennedy didn’t listen, increased help to West Berlin. In response to American aid, Russia built the Berlin Wall through Berlin. The Berlin Wall stopped the flow of Germans from East Berlin to West Berlin. In 1963, Kennedy spoke at the Berlin Wall, saying that it’s a symbol of tyranny. It stood as the symbol of the Cold War, until 1989 when it was torn down at the end of the Cold War.

Important Supreme Court cases of 60’s and 70’s:

Courts in the 60’s and 70’s protected the rights of the accused. The courts were very liberal. Liberals protect the underdogs. President Eisenhower and later President Nixon appointed the two chief justices, Warren and Berger.

SS- Chapter 21

Chapter 21: World War II

Isolationism after World War I-

In the years between the two World Wars, the US was interested in world peace. They didn’t join the League of Nations but they did join conferences which discussed disarmament and signed pacts. Our general ideology after World War I was one of isolationism. Isolation can sometimes be interchanged with neutrality because they are similar.

In the 1930’s, America was trying to recover from the depression. They decided to research why they went to war, as it may be the cause of the depression. Senator General Nye led a whole investigation. It was decided that it was because of the businessmen that we went to war, because they wanted to get rich. This discovery led to further isolationism.

In 1935, the government passed a series of neutrality acts:
1. Not to lend money to a nation at war.
2. Not to do business with any nation at war- only cash and carry business.

In 1937, FDR gave the Quarantine speech, which said that the US will quarantine the patient, not themselves. They will be punishing the warring nations, and not themselves.

Actual events that led up to World War II-
1. Rise of the totalitarian nations- nations that totally controlled the lives of people. In this category falls fascist regimes- extreme nationalism and militarism, which was practiced by Hitler of Germany and Mussolini of Italy. With the help of Italy and Germany, Spain was becoming fascist under Franco.
2. Hitler decided to make Germany into the power that she once was. He decided to take back all the lands that he felt really belonged to Germany, but had to be given up after World War I. An example of one of these territories was Austria. Hitler said that Austria was his land. The Germans were suffering under Austrian control. Hitler had a program- first he announced that the Germans in Austria were mistreated, then he went and took over the land. He did this in Czechoslovakia too. The world watched Hitler do this, but wasn’t sure how to react. When it came to Czechoslovakia, it was a sticky situation for England and France because they promised to help Czechoslovakia in her hour of need. England and France decided to meet with Hitler, in Munich. At the Munich Agreement, Hitler said that after the Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia, he’ll ask for nothing else. Neville Chamberlain (England) agreed. He said that he brought, “peace in our times”. Within six months, Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and took over the whole thing. This policy that England and France tried to use is known as appeasement.

The war began in Europe in September of 1939 with Germany’s invasion of Poland. The US remained neutral, but as the war progressed, Roosevelt looked for a way to get around America’s Neutrality Act. He came up with the Lend Lease Act- allowed for America to send help, ammunition and sell war materials to England. Roosevelt justified this by saying that he has to help any country whose defense is vital to our defense. The US was to be the arsenal of democracy.

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked American naval bases in Pearl Harbor. This heavily crippled America’s navy in the Pacific. Roosevelt called this day, a “day that will live in infamy”. This attack fueled American patriotism and Congress voted to go to war.
World War II was over in Europe in May of 1945, but didn’t end in the Pacific until August of 1945.

This war pitted twenty six Allied nations vs. eight Axis nations:
1. Major Allies-
a. England- Churchill
b. Russia- Stalin
c. USA- Roosevelt
2. Major Axis-
a. Germany- Hitler
b. Italy- Mussolini
c. Japan- Hirohito

Throughout the war, the world leaders met. Meetings:
1. Atlantic Charter meeting- Roosevelt and Churchill met on a battleship in the Atlantic Ocean. There they agreed on certain principles of lasting peace such as self determination- all nations decide on their own form of government.
2. Yalta Conference- at the war’s end. FDR, Churchill and Stalin met to discuss the division of Germany and trial for war criminals.
3. Potsdam- in 1945. The Allies- Truman, Stalin and Churchill- decided to force Japan to surrender or else they would use weapons of mass destruction.

In an effort to end the war quickly, the Allies invented the atom bomb. In 1943, a group of scientist from the allied countries led by Robert Oppenheimer began to work on the Manhattan Project- to build an atom bomb. Many German refugees also helped with this project. By July of 1945, Truman was notified that the atom bomb was ready for use. He tried it out in the deserts of New Mexico and it worked. Truman told the Japanese that he’s going to use it if they don’t surrender. They didn’t, so on August 6 and 8, Truman dropped the atom bomb on Hiroshima and then Nagasaki. The instant death toll was over 100,000 people and many more people died from after effects of the radiation. These effects continued for years- for many years afterwards, children were born with defects. The world now entered an atomic age.

There was a debate as to whether the US did the right thing or not. Truman said that the Japanese wouldn’t have surrendered otherwise and many more people would have been killed on both sides. People opposed this, saying that soldiers know that their lives are at stake, but you killed innocent civilians.

The Japanese surrendered and the war was over. American general, Douglas MacArthur, was in the Pacific during World War II and remained in Japan after the war. For the next seven years, Japan was under American control as they transferred to a democracy.

A major focus of World War II was Hitler’s Final Solution- destruction of the Jews. This is an act of genocide- destruction of one race.

American patriotism-

After the bombing on Pearl Harbor, the Americans were all patriotic- were all behind Truman. They gave up a lot- their food was rationed, but they knew that they were doing it for the Allies. Actors and actresses convinced people to buy war bonds.
Woman now took over men’s places and some served in the military and army. At this time, there was a popular song about Rosie the Riveter- about woman who worked in factories. She became slang for woman working in wartime factories. Women’s efforts during the war brought about change in the woman’s work- it was now slightly more accepted for woman to work out of the house. Issues like childcare now became important issues for woman.

About one million African Americans served during World War II. They were in segregated barracks. After the war, there was a change for the blacks- now began with renewed efforts to work for civil rights. In 1948, Truman issued an executive order, which led to the end of racial segregation in the military.

Japanese in America-

American Japanese were called Nisei. Many of these Nisei fought in the American army during World War II. Many even received medals for their bravery, receiving proportionately more than any other battalion. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Americans were fearful of the Nisei. They felt that they wouldn’t be loyal to America. The government was also afraid of the loyalty of the Nisei. The Wartime Relocation Agency took all the Japanese of the West Coast and moved them into gated in camps because they were afraid to have them mingle during the war.

A Japanese man fought the internment. His case reached the Supreme Court, and in Korematsu vs. USA, the judge stated that this is a fair wartime measure. About fifty years after World War II, they said that this wasn’t nice and they reimbursed approximately 60,000 survivors with $20,000.

Demobilization- getting the country back to civilian life after the war. All the troops had to be brought back home and the army had to be cut down. Truman now passed the GI Bill- gave money to soldiers so that they could get readjusted to life, paid for their schooling, gave them money for homes and business loans.

Another part of demobilization is to allow the economy to run on its own- to get rid of price control. When government control is removed, everything still had to remain under control, so the Taft- Hartley bill was passed to control strikes:
1. If you say that you want to go on strike, you must wait eighty days before doing so.
2. Outlawed closed shop- stated that you must join a union if you want to join a certain company.

After World War II, there was a baby boom. The depression and the war were now over and people were excited to settle down and start families.

The election of 1948 was an interesting one- many of the voters were unhappy with Truman. There was an economic mess because of inflation and strikes. Everyone was sure that Dewey was going to win, but they Truman did.

After World War II, in an effort for world peace, all the nations of the world formed the United Nations.

SS - Chapter 20... more 2 follow

Chapter 20: The Great Depression

In October of 1929, the bottom fell out of the stock market with a huge “bam” and the Great Depression began. How did this happen?
1. Weakness in the overall economy-
a. Farmers weren’t doing so great in the 20’s.
b. Other industries such as the textile, railroad and coal industries weren’t doing so well.
c. The real estate market began to dip.
d. The automobile market began to dip.
e. By the end of the decade, factories were overproducing.
2. Unequal distribution of wealth-
a. Forty percent of the nation was very poor
b. Five percent of the nation owned ninety percent of all the money. Since there was no stable middle class, we were dependant on the spending of a small portion of the population for all the buying.
3. Weak business structure- Coolidge had allowed business to run, have monopolies, and expand immensely. As a result, when one business fell, they all fell because one business was controlling everything.
4. Weak banking structure- about six thousand banks failed almost immediately after the stock market crashed.
5. Inadequate government policies- all government policies that were great for business were terrible for the depression.
a. The government in the 20’s gave tax breaks for the wealthy and business, widening the gap between the rich and the poor.
b. The Federal Reserve System lowered interest rates- this makes people glad to borrow, but led to irresponsible borrowing.
6. Weak international economy-
a. Europe hadn’t picked up since World War I and America did nothing to help them.
b. America placed a tariff on foreign goods, so the economy didn’t pick up.
c. European countries owed America money.

Hoover was president in January of 1929. Hoover was a self-made millionaire. He was an excellent businessman, a humanitarian and was very involved during World War I in the relief effort. However, he didn’t satisfy America at this time.

He tried tremendously to help:
1. Passed laws to increase jobs. During his time, the Hoover Dam was built- brought about new job opportunities.
2. Passed laws to give money to the real estate and railroad companies that were on the verge of bankruptcy. This was called the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
3. Stopped war debts.

Hoover told everyone that prosperity is around the corner- he was upbeat. But history feels that Hoover did too little, too slowly. Hoover was a believer in rugged individualism- a person shouldn’t get handouts, they should make it work.

In the summer of 1932, a group of World War I veterans came to the White House to discuss their bonuses. They wanted to receive these bonuses earlier than was decided upon, but Hoover didn’t allow for this. Hoover told the veterans to go home, but they didn’t and stayed on the lawn. Tear gas was sprayed to get them off the lawn.

Hoover believed in the Puritan work ethic- Americans can do it, they just have to work hard.

Human impact of the Great Depression-

Unemployment was at an all time high. 25% of the work force and 40% of African Americans were unemployed. African Americans and unskilled workers were hit the hardest. People selling items in the street and hobos now became a common sight.

Life in the city was difficult. Many people lost their homes. They lived in cardboard shacks, and the towns were called Hooverville. People would sleep on park benches with newspapers covering them- known as Hoover blankets.

Rural life was not much better. Farmers that were already depressed became even more depressed. In the 1930’s, there was a prolonged drought along much of the West. These states were called the Dustbowl. Some of the farmers in Oklahoma moved to California- called Oakies. John Steinbeck wrote about them in a book called “The Grapes of Wrath”.

The suffering of the people shaped the culture of the time. People now looked for inexpensive forms of leisure. Movies shut down. Many of the movies and novels of this time were escapist novels.

In 1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt became president. He ranked as one of the best presidents the US ever had. He inspired support and confidence in the American people. He was a master politician and he knew how to connect to the people to have them back him in what he was doing.

FDR was also a controversial figure:
1. He tried to change the Supreme Court when they went against him.
2. He ran for a third term in office and then a fourth. After he died in 1951, the 22nd amendment was passed, stating that one could only be president for two terms.

Roosevelt surrounded himself with bright people, therefore he was nicknamed the “Brain Trust”. These smart people influenced his way of thinking. He appointed the first woman to the Cabinet- Frances Perkins.

Another influence on Roosevelt’s way of life was his wife, Eleanor. She was a great humanitarian and encouraged her husband to help the poor and needy. After Roosevelt’s death, Eleanor became a leader in human rights issues. She was one of the key writers of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This became the blueprint for the dogma of the United Nations.

Roosevelt introduced his program to end the Great Depression- the New Deal. He had fireside chats (spoke on the radio, which was kept on the mantle over the fireplace), to speak to the nation and tell them what he was doing. He divided his program into three basic goals:
1. Relief- direct relief for those that are suffering.
2. Recovery- for the economy, so it grows again.
3. Reform- so that something like this should never happen again.

FDR passed hundreds of laws to bring relief, reform and recovery:
1. Relief- passed laws which made hundreds of jobs and money for the people.
2. Recovery- he passed many laws to help businesses. He encouraged people to go out and shop.
a. National Recovery Act (NRA) - gave the government control of business somewhat in order to help them recover. It also set up codes of competition- have to maintain certain wages and prices. Many people loved the NRA and some even named daughters after it, calling them Nira.
b. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) - recovery for the farmers. Encouraged farmers to throw out their surplus and reduce their crop by paying them to do so. The point of this was that there would now be a greater demand.
3. Reform- many reforms were passed:
a. Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) - set up in order to regulate stocks.
b. Social Security Act (SSA) –
i. Gave benefits to the retirees. This was instituted so that there would be no old men starving. This was the start of the Social Security system that we have today- both the person and the government put away money towards his retirement.
ii. Gave benefits for unemployed, homeless, children, elderly and handicapped.
c. Wagner Act- helped the unions. The New Deal in general helped the labor unions.

Roosevelt in general wanted to help the worker through these fore-mentioned laws. He also wanted to work together with businesses. This was much harder because:
1. Not all businesses wanted to listen to him.
2. The NRA was later declared unconstitutional.

He worked intensely with the labor unions. Labor unions became very strong at this point. The AFL (skilled workers) joined together with the CIO (unskilled workers). Joining is often a sign of strength.

Controversy surrounding the New Deal-

Not everyone agreed with everything that the New Deal was doing. FDR was a pragmatic person and was interested in bringing change. He didn’t have a specific way of doing things, he did whatever worked.

FDR was influenced by populists and progressives. He wanted to use the government to help the people. He tremendously increased the power of government over businesses and the stock exchange. Roosevelt used an economic idea called priming the pump- you put a little bit of water in first to get the pump to start working. He felt that if you would put money in the economy, it would start to work on its own. The legal term for this is called deficit spending.

Two Supreme Court cases that nixed the New Deal laws:
1. Schechter Poultry vs. USA- the Supreme Court ruled that the NRA was unconstitutional because the NRA regulated intrastate trade, which was for the state to take care of, not the government. It was felt that in general, the executive branch is taking on too much power.
2. USA vs. Butler- the AAA was struck down. The Supreme Court said that the Federal government is taking power that belonged to the states. Farms are local, so it’s for the state government to regulate.

Opposition to FDR’s programs:
1. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) changed the Tennessee Valley. It used to be that it was poverty stricken, with no jobs. A dam was built, which brought jobs and hydroelectricity. Some people looked as this as good and some looked at it as Socialism.
2. Court Packing Bill- FDR was unhappy that the Supreme Court kept on declaring his laws as unconstitutional. He wanted to change the court, so he told Congress to either kick them out when they turned 70 or add six more judges. Congress said that they aren’t going to pass this bill.

FDR ran for a third term, breaking the tradition. Then he ran for a fourth. People looked at his as a dictator. In 1951, the 22nd amendment was passed stating that a president can’t run for more than two terms.

Different groups of opposition:
1. Republicans, the wealthy, businessmen- they felt that the government was becoming too powerful and that the constitution was being threatened. They felt that the New Deal taxes were unfair to the wealthy, and that socialism was being brought in place of democracy.
2. Socialists and progressives- said that FDR isn’t doing enough. Eugene Debs was a socialist. He felt that wealth in a nation should be distributed more evenly. There were extremists.
3. Woman and African Americans- felt that many of Roosevelt’s projects were helping the white males. They felt that they were getting less pay for the same job.

Three people who opposed FDR- these people were home grown demagogues- they were an outgrowth of the people’s pain and suffering:
1. Francis Townshend- he came up with a program to help all the elderly in this country.
2. Father Coughlin- was a priest. He had a radio show in which he spoke out against the rich. He said that the rich are destroying America. He spoke about Jews so much, saying that they are the businessmen.
3. Huey Long- he was from Louisiana. He was trying to run for the presidency. He was a senator. Long was a flashy fellow. He promised the people money and that he would get them out of the depression. He was assassinated in 1935.

Assessment of the New Deal-
1. Most historians feel that it was World War II that took the nation out of the depression.
2. Nevertheless, the New Deal did help people cope with the depression. Some felt that the New Deal helped prevent further economic and social disaster.
3. Restored confidence in the government.
4. The government assumed a role and responsibility in people’s lives.
5. Increased the nation’s debt because of the deficit spending.