Dinim: Rabbi Frankel

Someone who is involved in קרוב רחוקים work may be dealing with people not dressedבצניעות :
1. Hair- the ארוך השלחן says that hair being a totalערבה depends on society. Long ago, even unmarried girls covered their hair, so hair was considered anערבה . Today, most woman don’t cover their hair, so a married woman’s hair isn’t a totalערבה . All the other פוסקים don’t hold like this butבשעת הדחק , people do fall back on theשיטה of theארוך השלחן .
2. Collarbone, knees and elbows- the ארוך השלחן says these areas are considered anערבה no matter what the style is. The מאירי says that only byתלמוד תורה , a man may speak in front of an exposed woman. If someone is makingקדוש and someone is inappropriately dressed, the man should turn to the side. Story- Patty Park.

רוח רע- bad smells:

What type of bad odors do we have to be careful of?
1. Smells that come from rotting food- if we have a dirty garbage can, we have to be concerned about this.
2. Carcasses
3. Bodily wastes, such as a baby’s dirty diaper.

What do we do in terms of making davening near rotting material:
1. In order to daven near rotting material that has no smell, we must move 4 אמות away.
2. In order to daven near rotting material that does have a bad smell:
a. רוח רע שיש בו עיקר- a bad smell that the source of it is in the same room where we want to daven. We have to estimate where the bad smell ends and distance ourselves 4 אמות. When it comes to davening ש''ע, we can’t see the rotting material.
b. רוח רע שאין בו עיקר- rotting material that isn’t in the same room as us, but the bad smell still comes to us. We just have to get out of the smelly area.

Something that you personally think smells bad, or a pregnant woman whose hormones are messed up isn’t included in רוח רע.

If we put a כסוי on a something that has rotting materials in it, (such as a garbage pail) but there’s still a bad smell coming out of it, it falls into the category of רוח רע שאין בו עיקר. Today’s diapers are considered like a כסוי because everything is contained in it, but if someone uses cloth diapers, they should ask a שאילת חכם because it isn’t contained.

If someone wants to make a ברכה, they don’t have to check a little child to see if they’re dirty before making it, but if they smell that the child is dirty, they should change them.

If someone’s in middle of davening ש''ע and a child with a dirty diaper with a bad smell walks in:
1. Try to motion to someone to move the child.
2. Stop ש''ע and move to a different room and continue. It’s not considered a הפסק because you can’t daven while smelling a bad odor. If you would stop and change the child, that would be considered a הפסק.

What is the status of a bathroom?
1. Bathroom of old- didn’t have any type of plumbing system. A portable bathroom would fall into this category. The walls of these old bathrooms have the דין as if it’s the dirt itself.
a. We have to distance ourselves from the walls.
b. If there is a bad odor, it’s considered a רוח רע שיש בו עיקר so we have to move four אמות.
c. If it’s in the מזרח, you have to make sure you don't see it when davening.
2. Bathrooms of today- the חזון איש is מחמיר but other אחרונים are מקיל as to whether or not bathrooms of today (where everything is washed away) are the same as the bathrooms of old. A bathroom with plumbing isn’t considered the same:
a. We don’t have to distance ourselves from the walls.
b. You could see it when you are davening.
Can you wash your hands in today’s bathrooms? Yes, because רוח רע doesn’t apply.

IF you’re on a trip, and you don’t have any fresh water:
1. One can wash their hands in a bathroom, but should say the ברכה outside.
2. You could be יוצא נטילת ידים, but you should bring the water outside.
3. At a rest stop, since the sinks are separate from the bathroom, you could make a ברכה in the sink area.

ידים נקיות:

When it comes to the cleanliness of hands, when you want to make a ברכה, you have to be aware of two kinds of טומא:
1. Spiritual uncleanliness- if a person scratches a sweaty area of the body, his scalp, or an area that is usually covered, he must wash his hands. If he can’t wash his hands, he should rub them on a rough surface.
2. Physical dirt- if we wouldn’t want to walk out in public with that amount of dirt on us, we can’t recite a ברכה or מילתא דקדושא. There is no חיוב to wash your hands. You just remove the dirt.

Interruptions:

There are two categories:
1. After reciting the ברכה, but before doing the action that the ברכה pertains to.
a. If he’s מפסיק with דברי חול, it invalidates the ברכה.
b. If he said something on a level of קדושה, like ''אמן'':
i. Some hold that it isn’t considered an interruption because it’s on the same level
ii. Others hold that one shouldn’t say anything- even though it’s on the same level, it’s different areas, so it’s considered an interruption and he has to repeat.
iii. כף החיים- לחתכילה one shouldn’t interrupt, but if he already did, ספק ברכות להקל because it’s a דרבנן.
c. Non- word verbalization- one shouldn’t make sounds to begin with, but it doesn’t create a הפסק because they aren’t real words.
d. Humming, participating in other activities- it shouldn’t be done but doesn’t constitute as a הפסק.
2. Within the ברכה itself.

עצות on how to minimize interruptions:
1. Hot food or drink- put some on a spoon, blow on it and only when it’s cool enough should he make a ברכה.
2. When making a ברכה on a full roll, cut two-thirds of the way down, but enough that the roll should still be שלם. Make a ברכה, break off a piece, and eat.
3. Tangerine- peel it, loosen up one clove (still has the מעלה of שלם), recite a ברכה and break off the clove.
4. Packaging- take the food out of the packaging, or at least expose enough that you could eat it immediately after reciting a ברכה.
a. Commercial packaging- open it to the extent that it could be eaten right away.
b. Soda- prepare first (open, straw…), then make a ברכה.
5. Seeds- open up at least one and make a ברכה only after it’s shelled.
Even without these הכנות, the ברכה is still valid.

There’s a כלל that a ברכה should be stated עובר לעשיתם- before the action is done.

צרכי סעודה:

It’s a general rule which is necessary for the meal we’re partaking in at that moment. It doesn’t necessarily have to mean the סעודה ממש; it could be anything else necessary for the סעודה.

Things that you need at the table:
1. Salt- it’s a מצוה מדרבנן to dip our חלה in salt. If someone made the ברכה and sees that they need the salt, they can לחתכילה say, “please pass the salt”.
2. There’s a חיוב on a person to feed his animals before himself. If he made a ברכה and it was time to feed the animals, he can ask someone to go feed the animals. If there is no one else to feed the animals, he should eat a כזית and go feed the animals.
3. If someone is approaching the table, but did not yet wash their hands, and the ראש סעודה is making המוציא, he can listen, answer אמן, go wash his hands and then eat.
4. If someone washed their hands, made a ברכה and is about to make המוציא and someone says that he touched his hands, since it’s a ספק, he should go wash again to remove the ספק and then he can eat.

Even though צרכי סעודה doesn’t constitute as a הפסק, we should still minimize it.

In cases where the person already said נטילת ידים and is waiting to say המוציא, even if one has to speak out it isn’t considered a הפסק. It doesn’t invalidate anything because the goal of נטילת ידים was already fulfilled. A person can do so as long as he doesn’t have הסך הדעת.

When is it permitted to speak? Everyone holds that the ברכת הנהנין are on eating-
1. Some hold that one isn’t יוצא with the ברכה until you swallow something of that food.
2. Others hold that you’re יוצא with טעימה.
If you follow the first שיטה, once you swallow a little bit you can talk out. If go according to the second שיטה, the ברכה is חל when you taste the food. We פסקין that לחתכילה you shouldn’t talk until you swallow a little, but בדיעבד since ספק ברכות להקל, you can talk after the טעימה.

הפסק באמצע הברכה:

1. If we are מפסיק between ברוך and the שם ה', we have to repeat the ברכה.
2. If we are מפסיק between the שם ה' and מלכות, we have to repeat the ברכה.
3. If we are מפסיק between the פתיחת הברכה and the נושאי, we have to repeat the ברכה.
4. If we are מפסיק between the נושאי and the חתימה in a ברכה ארוכה, we have to repeat the ברכה.
5. By a ברכה ארוכה there’s an exception- once a person gets into the נושאי, if they interrupt so long as they don’t have הסך הדעת, it doesn’t invalidate the ברכה.

This has tremendous implications in הלכה because there are many אופנים of ברכות ארוכות. If someone comes late to shul and is behind, when can they answer?
1. If they’re in middle of פסוקי דזמרה or ברכות קריעת שמע, they can answer to ברכו.
2. If someone is saying קדיש, we can reply ''אמן. יהא שמי רבה...''.
3. By קדושה, we only say the sentence of ''קדוש קדוש קדוש'' and we’ll say ''ברוך כבוד ה' ממקומו''.
4. שמונה עשרה- we answer ''אמן'' to ''הקל הקדוש'' and ''שומע תפילה''. When the חזן says ''המחזיר שכינתו לציון'', we don’t answer ''אמן'', but we do bow down and say the words ''מודים אנחנו לך''.

While we are in the middle of ש''ע, we aren’t מפסיק for anything. If we’re in the middle of ש''ע and the ש''ץ is saying קדושה, we should stop and listen because of the כלל that שומע כעונה.

שנוי מקום: בנוגע לברכה ראשונה וברכה אחרונה

When are we מחויב to say a ברכה ראשונה on food? If you eat a משהו of food, even a small amount, you have to make a ברכה.

The only time you’ll find an exception is if you’re drinking a small amount for the sake of swallowing a pill. If you know that it takes you a lot of liquid to get the pill down, or you know that you’re going to drink more, then you do make a ברכה.

If we eat less than a כזית to taste food, like on ערב שבת, we don’t make a ברכה ראשונה on food. We should just taste the food and spit it out.

If a person knows that they’re going to eat less than a כזית of bread, do they have to wash? The משנה ברורה says that you wash, but you don’t recite the ברכה of ''על נטילת ידים''.

When it comes to a ברכה אחרונה, we don’t recite one on:
1. Solid- until we had a כזית.
2. Liquid- until we had a רביעית (approximately 3.3 oz.)
Some say that the שיעור has to be eaten תוך אכילת פרס- anywhere from two to nine minuets.

What foods will combine for a שיעור כזית?
1. אוכל ואוכל- all solids can combine to form a כזית, for example a fruit cup- all together, they make a כזית.
2. The ז' מינים are unique because you have to make an ''על העץ'' on them:
a. If we have a fruit bar where there’s a חצי זית of the ז' מינים and חצי זית of other foods, we make a בורא נפשות.
b. If we have a חצי זית of bread or a מזונות and a חצי זית of ז' מינים or other fruits, like a Fig Newton, you make a בורא נפשות.
c. If we have a חצי זית of bread and a חצי זית of other מזונות foods, you make a המוציא and על המחי'.

If someone drinks one or two ounces of wine and some other liquids- normally we would say a בורא נפשות, but the משנה ברורה is in doubt if you can even say a בורא נפשות. The משנה ברורה says that if you have a ספק on the על הגפן, you have a ספק on the בורא נפשות because the על הגפן makes the בורא נפשות פטור. ר' משה says that you should say a בורא נפשות.

Three ways to get around this:
1. Drink a משהו.
2. Drink a רביעית of wine.
3. Eat a כזית of solid food that demands a בורא נפשות.

Chumash: Perek Tes

א דבר came to prove השגחת ה'. It did have a התראה because it came as an עד. The warning came in the palace in the middle of the day- ''בא אל פרעה''. It was said in front of all the servants in order to publicize it.

ודברת- ואתה תְּדַבֵּר

אור החיים -בא אל פרעה Why does it say ''בא'' instead of ''לך''? Surrounding פרעה’s palace were guards. He also put lions and dogs. משה was scared that he would be killed. ה' is now commanding him to go without permission and not to be scared. ה' watched over him that nothing should happen to him. From where do we know that משה did indeed go without רשות? After מכת חשך, פרעה told משה- ''אל תוסיף לראות את פני''. פרעה should’ve told his servants to tell משה, but they didn’t have the כח to do so therefore פרעה had to tell משה himself. By the מכות at the water (דם, ערוב, ברד), it says ''לך''. There was no need to say ''בא'' because there were no guards or animals. So what’s the meaning of ''לך''? He should go now, even though it’s not דרך ארץ because פרעה is doing his צרכים.

שערי אהרן By the other מכות is says ''ואמרת'' and here it says ''ודברת''. Why does משה have to speak in a harsher way than usual?
1. מלבי''ם- it’s a לשון of וויכוח- arguing. By all the other מכות, פרעה had a choice even after the מכה started that if he would have regret it would help, therefore it says ''ואמרת''. But here, all the animals died in a split second. משה is speaking in a harsh manner now to get the message across to פרעה that regret would only help before.
2. שפתי כהן- by all the other מכות, פרעה had some measure of צער, for example by כינים, ''מחככים זב''. Here, it wasn’t directly applicable to him. ה' told משה to exaggerate the מכה and specify every detail. ה' told משה to cause him צער with his words until פרעה felt that it was applicable to him. משה was very specific so that it would cause פרעה pain:
a. ''בסוסים''- horses symbolize a king. If all the horses would die, then פרעה wouldn’t have a horse.
b. ''בחמרים''- most of the animals that were found in מצרים were donkeys.
c. ''בגמלים''- used to carry loads.
d. ''בבקר''- all their food was dependant on בקר because they plow.
e. ''צאן''- they got their milk, and that was how they made a living. They were also their ע''ז.

ב מאן- מסרב
ועודך- ואתה עדיין

רש''י -מחזיק בם means to grab, like ''והחזיקה במבושיו''.

אונקלוס מחזיק= מתקף. It’s a לשון of holding on strong.

רש''י ג -הנה יד ה' הוי' it’s הווה.

הווה עתיד עבר
( like עוֹשָה, רוֹצָה, רוֹעָה) הויָ' תהי' היתה
(העומד- הווה)

רמב''ן By ברד it says ''שלח העז את מקנך... הירא את דבר ה' הניס את מקנהו''. There were also animals by קריעת ים סוף. But didn’t all the animals die by מכת דבר? It says ''במקניך אשר בשדה''. It’s not an exclusive statement, just where מקנה are usually found, but he was also including the animals that were elsewhere- ''וימת כל מקנה''.

אוה''ח Only the מקנה that was in the field died- ''במקניך אשר בשדה''. When it says ''וימת כל מקנה'', it means all the animals that were in the field died.


ישוב סתירה ראי' שיטה מפרש
התרה אותם בהווה ''במקניך אשר בשדה'' ''וימת כל מקנה' כל- שדה, בית רמב''ן
כל= שנאמר בפסוק ''וימת כל מקנה' ''במקניך אשר בשדה'' רק בשדה אוה''ח

אבן עזרה Not everything died- ''במקניך אשר בשדה'', it’s just generally referring to מקנה. It says ''וימת כל מקנה', so how could it be that some was left during ברד? רובו ככלו. Proof: it says by ברד, ''את כל עשב השדה'' but we know that it couldn’t be everything, because by ארבה it says ''ואכל את יתר הפליטה''.

רמב''ן Why specifically here does it say a לשון of הבדלה?
1. The מצריים hated shepherds because they didn’t think that their gods needed to be watched. They put all the sheep and all the other מקנה together on the boundaries of the city to separate them. The animals from גושן were also right nearby and according to nature since all the animals were together they all should’ve died.
2. There was a contamination in the air and all should’ve died, but only the מצריים’s animals did.

ד והפלה- וה' יַפְלֶה- וה' יבדיל

ה וישם- ה' שָם
מועד- זמן קבוע

רשב''ם Why did ה' put a מועד? So that the מצריים shouldn’t have a פתחון פה and say that it was a plague.

מלבי''ם Since they could only do תשובה before the מכה, he let them know that they had till the next day.

אוה''ח -וישם ה' מועד לאמר since only the מקנה in the field died, he was giving them time to bring their animals inside. By ברד it said, ''שלח העז את מקניך'', but from where in the פסוק do we see a רמז here? ''לאמר''- but no one’s speaking! Tell the מצריים the מועד so that they’ll have time to bring their animals in.

מלבי''ם Why did he say ''ממחרת'' and not ''היום''? To them a chance to do תשובה. That day he gave the warning and the next day the מכה started.

אוה''ח ב''י were slaves, so from where did they have animals?
1. When יעקב and his sons came down to מצרים, they brought מקנה.
2. By דם, they:
a. Bartered water for animals.
b. Used the money they got from selling water and bought מקנה.
Which part of the פסוק does ''וממקנה ב''י...'' connect to? There were some מצריים who tried to be smart and sold the animals ''על שם'', but not in their hearts. These animals died- ''וימת...וממקנה ב''י'', but those that were really ב''י’s, ''וממקנה ב''י לא מת אחד''.

ז וישלח- והוא שָלַח
ויכבד- והוא כָּבַד

ספורנו You can’t say that anyone else did this נס besides for ה' because no one else can be מחיה or ממית. פרעה saw, but he didn’t want to be מתבונן, therefore he hardened his heart.

Why didn’t פרעה call to them?
1. שפתי כהן- it wasn’t applicable to him.
2. אור החיים- there was no פחד מות.

חזקוני Why was there no רושם? Because it was too late.

שערי אהרן It says ''עד אחד''- but one. By קריעת ים סוף it says that everyone was killed ''עד אחד''- but פרעה. We learn from here that one of the Jew’s animals died. Who’s animal died? The animal of the son of שלומית בת דברי. Now, פרעה had a פתחון פה- he thought that this son was a Jew because his mother was Jewish, but before the תורה was givin, it went according to the father. Really the פתחון פה had no validity.

מכ''מ-
1. כל יקר, ז- יז- when the שבטים came down, they were shepherds. The מצריים switched their jobs, making them into builders. ב''י’s animals now died because they had no one to care for them, therefore all the מצריים’s animals died.
2. -שערי אהרןThe מצריים forced ב''י to be their shepherds, therefore their animals died.
3. When the מצריים wanted to plow the field, they used people instead of animals because they didn’t want to wear out their animals. This is referred to in –תהלים ''על גבי חרשו חורשים האריכו למעניתם''.
4. ילקוט שמוני- ''אמר הקב''ה יבא דבר שממית ויפרע מצרים שירצו לאבד עומה המוסרת עצמה על יחוד שמי כמו שכתוב 'כי עליך הורגנו כל היום' '' .

עד''ש comes to prove השגחת ה':
1. ערוב- the animals only went to מצרים.
2. דבר- only the מצריים’s died.
3. שחין- was an עונש therefore there was no warning.

ח חפניכם- חפנים שלכם- קמץ יד
soot of furnace פיח כבשן-
לעיני- לעינים של, לפני

רש''י -פיח כבשן the thing that is blown from burnt coals from the furnace . פיח is a לשון of blowing- the wind blows and spreads it. (burning embers עוממים- .coalsגחלים- )

-וזרקו משה everything that is thrown with force is thrown with one hand. There were many נסים:
1. Had four fistfuls in one hand.
2. The dust went on the whole ארץ מצרים.
3. מלבי''ם- it went up to the sky. This was a נס because it’s something light.

ט ( אבק פיח ) dust אבק-

רש''י -לשחין פורח אבעבעות אונקלוס says לשחין סגי אבעבועין- the שחין sprouted blisters.

-שחין from the לשון of hot.

רמב''ן - והי'... מצרים how did everyone get שחין?
1. The שחין fell from the sky and everyone it touched got שחין. Those that were in the houses got it from the dust that was moved by the air. This caused blisters and boils on them because it was hot. There was a sandstorm- happened frequently in times of drought. ב''י have a קללה that if they don’t keep the תורה, it won’t rain water- there’ll be sandstorms which ruin the crops.
2. The little bit of אבק that was thrown up in the air contaminated the air and the מכה traveled by air.

י ''השמימה'' teaches us a נס- it went up to the sky.

רש''י -באדם ובבהמה how could it be that they had animals if everything died in מכת דבר? Only
the animals that were in the field died. פרעה had taken in his animals so none of them
died- ''ויקח שש מאות רחב בחור''.

יא מלבי''ם They couldn’t stand because of the pain of the מכה. The חרטמים couldn’t do it because there was no one to do it on.

רמב''ן -ולא... משה they were embarrassed when they got the שחין, and they never returned to פרעה’s palace. They only stayed in their houses because they were embarrassed to meet משה on the street.

רביינו בחיי In the beginning, they were considered great- חרטמי מצרים. As time went on, they went down in חשיבות. Now, they were so low that they didn’t return to the palace.

אור החיים פרעה didn’t get שחין. He didn’t send ב''י out because there was no פחד מות.

יב רמב''ן -ויחזק ה' את לב פרעה in the beginning, the magicians encouraged him. Now, they left him so he had no support.

Missing!!!

מכ''מ-
1. The מצרים made ב''י make hot things cold and cold things hot, so they got שחין which was both hot and cold.
2. ב''י got terribly sun burnt from working out in the field. The מצרים pushed them to work, so they got even more burnt.
3. ''אמר הקב''ה יבא דבר העולה מן הכבשן ויפרע ממצרים שבקשו לאבד עומה שמסרו את עצמם על יחוד שמי''
יג השכם- קום מוקדם
והתיצב- ואתה תְּנַצֵב

By מכת דם, it didn’t say a לשון of השכם. By ערוב it did say a לשון of השכם.

אוה''ח There are three commandments in this פסוק:
1. השכם- get up early.
2. והתיצב- you should stand strong and proud. משה was an ענו so ה' is telling him to stand straight and not with הכנעה because משה is the אלקים. It says ''התיצב לפני פרעה''. He should stand strong, but his heart should be lowered before ה'.
3. ואמרת

מדרש He didn’t go to the יאור because he didn’t want משה to meet him. He went somewhere else. ה' told משה, ''השכם בבוקר'', but it doesn’t say to the יאור.

יד רש''י -את כל מגפתי going to send one that’s equal to all of them in strength= בכורות.

ש''ח ו- you have to read it as בַּכּוּרוֹת- ripe. The ברד cracked the ripe things- hard hit by hard will crack. The unripe things didn’t crack because they were soft and just bent over then popped back up. Later on, by ברד, it says, ''והפשתה והשערה נכתה כי השערה אביב והפשתה גבעול'', therefore ברד is also known as בַּכּוּרוֹת.
How could ברד be the worst מכה- it says in שמות that בכורות was the worst?
1. בכורות was the worst in the eyes of פרעה , but by the מצריים, ברד was the worst because they didn’t have any food to eat and one dies when they have no food.
2. ברד is the worst of all up until now, but בכורות is worse than all the other מכות. ברד is שקולה כנגד כל המכות- שעברו.


מהרש''ל בכורות has to be the worst מכה because פרעה sent out ב''י after בכורות. He only sent them out when he couldn’t handle it anymore.
בכורות is שקולה כנגד כל המכות, so why is it here? What’s the connection? After דבר, when all the animals died, פרעה thought that he was going to be next. By שחין, he saw that he didn’t die so he thought that he was getting away scot free, without punishment, and that ה' couldn’t kill him. ה' said that he could punish him, and that he could’ve killed him by דבר. The time will come that ה' will kill him but it just didn’t happen yet because ה' is waiting for an opportunity to show him his יד.

ספורנו -כי בפעם הזאת for the first six מכות there was no רושם. Here, there was an impression- ''אל לבך''. It caused harm because it ruined all the land, so there was no food for the animals to eat. This messed up the whole food chain. The impression was permanent because this מכה ruined the weather and the air. Now, they should’ve done תשובה because משה’s warning them. (הצמחים- טבועה, מזג אויר- ).

כלי יקר -כי בפעם... מגפתי It’s talking about בכורות. פרעה didn’t realize the greatness of בכורות because ''אינו דומה שמעי' לראי' '', so ה' brought ברד- destroyed all the first foods. This was a משל so that פרעה should understand the severity of בכורות. The צער was so great by ברד that פרעה said, ''חטאתי הפעם''. This shows that the first fruits are so חביב. The first-born are also so beloved. If you don’t pay attention to ברד, בכורות will come and it’ll go ''אל לבך''. If the צער of בכורים of the fruits was so great, קו''ח the בכורים of people.

אוה''ח -כל מגפתי through ברד, he’s going to pay attention to every other מכה and realize that it was from ה'. How so? פרעה thought that דם and צפרדע were through magic. By כינים, פרעה said, ''אצבע אלוקים היא''. They were granted an extra dosage of magic from ה'. By עד''ש, they didn’t really think it was from ה'- they thought it was natural. By ברד, fire came down from the sky, which is impossible. פרעה knew this and knew that it was from ה'. If ברד is from ה', then all the other מכות were also from ה'- אז לראשונות תתבונן.



פרעה believed this in his heart, but only for a second.

טו ותכחד- ואתה נְכְחַדְתָּ- נחרבת

רש''י כי עתה שלחתי את ידי- It says that ה' killed people by דבר, but He didn’t, so how could it be? He didn’t kill them, but He could have. ה' didn’t kill them because he wanted to show them how strong He was.

טז ואולם- אבל

Two reasons that ה' didn’t kill them:
1. ''בעבור הראתך את כחי''
2. ''ולמען ספר שמי בכל הארץ''

1. In שמות, it said that he didn’t know ה', so now ה' is letting him know who He is.
2. Everyone will see that if you don’t listen to ה', you’ll get an עונש- this will bring about a קדוש ה'.

ספורנו ה' didn’t kill פרעה so that:
1. He could do תשובה.
2. The rest of the world will do תשובה.

יז trampling - מםתולל- ל' מסילה, רומס

רש''י -עודך מסתולל בעמי אונקלוס says that it means כבישת. A מסילה is an אורח כבישא- a well trodden path. The words of the פסוק mean that you’re still trampling My nation.
It’s התפעל- when the פ הפועל is a ש,ש,ס, it gets switched with the ת of התפעל. Examples:
1. ''ויסתבל החגב''- from קוהלת. When a person is old, his legs will become so weary that it’s as if he’s carrying a heavy burden.
2. ''כי תשתרר עלינו''- דתן and אבירם said this to משה

English- midterm review

Literature-

The Pit and the Pendulum:

Edgar Allen Poe lived in the 1800s. He was the first American author write the genre of literature known as Gothic literature. He felt that every single word in his poems contributed to the effect of the poem. Gothic literature portrays element of darkness and mystery.

The Pit and the Pendulum takes place during the one of the Spanish Inquisitions. Inquisitions were a symbol of brutality used up until World War II. The purpose of the Inquisitions was to make sure that the Catholics were remaining loyal to their religion. Inquisitions operated on the basis of innocent until proven guilty.

The Embarrassing Episode of Little Miss Muffet:

Parody- a humorous imitation of a piece of work, most often to bring across a point to the reader. Parody often includes satire.
Hyperbole- a huge exaggeration used to bring across a point.
Satire- exaggeration used to bring across most often social criticism in a humorous way.

Paragraph 1 Has a very casual tone

Paragraph 2 Grabbled and babbled- it’s an onomatopoeia. It adds to the humor.

Moral :
1. It’s rude to disrupt someone’s meal.
2. No matter how polite you’re being, if you’re annoying, you’re being rude.

Friends in San Rosaria:

Friends in San Rosario was written by O’ Henry. O’ Henry’s style of writing is one of:
1. Irony
2. Foreshadowing- seemingly insignificant details, events and mannerisms hint out to what will happen.

The emphasis of this story is characterization- being able to define attributes through what you read about them. There are five things that one has to pay attention to in order to characterize a character:
1. What the character says.
2. What the character does.
3. What others say to and about the character.
4. How other characters relate to this character.
5. What the author tells us about the character.

Characterization of main characters:
1. Tom and Bob- they are typical westerners with a typical western mentality and mindset.
a. Tom- very tall, the type of person you’d assume to be very broad and have a deep voice. Tom has a grizzled beard and piercing blue eyes. He was cowboy looking and very confident.
b. Bob- a stout, elderly man. Bob looked like a farmer dressed up- he didn’t fit into his role.
They regard themselves as cowboys- regarded his office as his pony corral. When Tom talks about the “first taste of prosperity and white shirts”, this shows that it’s a novelty to him, and that he doesn’t fit in- it doesn’t come naturally to him. It says that Tom “knew men as well as cattle”- Tom made his fortune from cattle and was able to understand people. He knew who was honest and who was a good businessman.
Their values- Tom and Bob were such good friends that Bob was willing to go to jail for his friend who had a family, even though he saw him taking the money. Now, Tom was putting himself all out to help his friend who could’ve been in trouble. The bottom line rule in cowboy society is that if you aren’t part of the pack and are disloyal, you’re out, because loyalty and friendship come above all.
2. Nettlewick- he was so confused when Tom said that he embezzled $70,000 for his friend- he thought that he was crazy, whereas Tom and Bob thought this was natural and normal. Tom pitied Nettlewick for not understanding his way of thinking.

Page 40  There is a contrast here- Nettlewick is purposeful and everyone else is just hanging around.
 First direct description of Nettlewick’s personality- his first words were in cool, brittle tones.

Page 41  Edlinger is characterized to show that someone that someone and methodical got flustered by the inspector. This shows a lot about the bank examiner.
 When counting the money, Nettlewick threw down the money down and the coins were whining and singing- discordant. This shows the friction.
 The teller got all flustered and nervous because the bank examiner was being so picky and thorough. Turner was different than Nettlewick- he greeted everyone and was on a first name basis with Dorsey.

Page 42  “Stem-winder”- perfectionist and going to do the job well.
 “Leaned back”- Tom was trying to figure out what to do.

Page 43  “Flutter…”- he was very efficient and very demanding. Nettlewick was like a whirlwind.
 Tom was chilled, and he wasn’t intimidated by Nettlewick.
 “One was a…”- this is showing the difference between Tom and Nettlewick.
 Cattle had to do with the bank because the bank’s success was dependant on the cattle market.

Page 44  Tom referred to the loans in cattle terms. This is a proof that his heart was in cattle.
 “Like a bloodhound seeking a trial”- Nettlewick did it very thoroughly, looking for something wrong.
 Tom didn’t lie, but really the money was in his pocket. His words were very conniving.
 Tom decorated his bank in a very interesting way. This shows that his heart was still in cattle.

Page 45  There was a preverbal ice in the room. Nettlewick feels like he has caught Tom and he’s about to relay harmful information to him. Nettlewick feels a tension, so he decides to break the ice. As the reader we think that anyway he should break the ice, because in essence he is a piece of ice.
 “Must compel me…”- Nettlewick is still unfailingly polite.

Page 46  Tom glanced casually out the window, but we know that really it was to see if the shade was down.

Page 47  “First trip down into the shadows of life”- that someone who they trusted and thought they knew well is failing them.
 Tom gave Bob boundaries. He didn’t lock him up, but he had to show up to the court case.

Page 48  Bob is asking Tom to admit it to him, but Tom doesn’t.

Page 49  “Draw a yellow shade down”- this is foreshadowing.

Page 50  Now, we see the significance of Tom looking out the window.
 The letter wasn’t a request. Tom didn’t feel proud because of what he did. He felt that it was part of friendship.

The Roads We Take:

This story is written by O’ Henry. It is an ironic story, written with subtle humor.

Page 154  The old fashioned trains required water with coal in order that they should be able to run.

Page 156  Head for financing- this ironic because his head really was in financing.
 Short of what I expected… looked pensively…- came up with a plan.
 Shark Dodson wasn’t born into this. When someone is born into circumstances, it’s easier to justify.

Page 157  Bob is so shocked because he thought that they were friends.
 I thought you was a man- that at least you would have loyalty to his friends.
 Bore a deeply sorrowful look- he was still hoping that Shark Dodson has a spark of humanity in him.
 You don’t know…- relying on his excuse.
 Inexorable cupidity- unrelented greed.
 An evil face…- a house could look nice and full of good but the only way to see what’s really going on inside is through a window. Through of his greedy actions, we are able to take a peek into his evil soul.
 Indignant- righteous anger. Even the echoes of the gun seem to be protesting about the terrible action done with it.
 When the author puts a dream in a short story, it carries a message.
 Remarkable dream- most people would find such a dream disturbing.

Page 158  Peabody is asking Dodson to help a friend.

 Dodson is greedy- if my gain comes at the expense of someone else’s life, so be it.
 The author uses the technique of parallelism. He wrote to parallel events occurring to the same person. In reality, the Wall Street broker had a dream- subconscious thoughts. We see that he was aspiring to it. In the dream, Dodson has a philosophical conversation with his friend- he tells him that he was at a fork in the road and he could have gone either right or left. He went to the left and wonders if he had gone to the right if he would be different. Bob says that he would still have been the same- Dodson said that it’s not the road you take but what’s inside of you. We see that in reality, he went to the right and still turned out the same.
 Bolivar cannot carry double- he’s using the same excuse- it’s all about me.

Grammar-

Mrs. Ribiat’s notes are really more helpful… but for those who asked…

1. We use commas to mark a series of words or phrases in a sentence:
a. You may choose cheesecake, pudding or a brownie for dessert.
A comma before the conjunctions of For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So and before the last item in the series is optional however you need to be consistent.
b. Tourists from all over the United States spend their summer at Lake Tahoe, at Big Sur or in California’s spectacular mountains.
Even though it’s more than one word, you still need to separate the phrases with commas.
c. We may arrive by noon if the weather is good, if there is no traffic, and if the car doesn’t give us trouble.
We have dependant clauses here. A clause is a group of words. A dependant clause could have a subject and verb (=predicate) but can’t stand alone. They need additional dependant or independent clause to make the thought complete.
d. They were young, they were unprepared, but they were eager.
Here, we have a series of short independent clauses joined by the conjunction of but, therefore they are set off by commas.
e. Pat has to get books by, Hawthorne, Twain, and Wharton, for her literature class.
There should be no commas put before or after the series.
2. We use commas to separate two or more adjectives which modify the same noun equally:
a. Dark, windy nights are ideal for telling ghost stories.
Both these adjectives modify the noun equally. This can be proven by switching them around. Since switching their order doesn’t change the meaning of the sentence, we know they both modify equally.
b. The violent volcanic eruption was scary.
c. The talkative disk jockey was irritating.
The adjectives are not interchangeable so they don’t modify the noun equally. Two adjectives that modify a noun unequally are called open compound.
d. Four small three year old boys…
Don’t put a comma when describing age, size, color and numbers.
3. We use a comma before a conjunction that joins two independent clauses:
a. The science class is enjoyable, but it requires a great deal of reading.
b. She was happy and I was not.
If the two independent clauses are short, you can leave out the comma.
c. Everyone had doubts, but Gail didn’t listen.
If the comma will clear the confusion in a sentence, it should be put in.
*. We don’t use a comma to separate a subject from its verbs:
a. Elana sat on the stage and she sang all night.
This is a sentence with a compound verb. When you have a compound verb, you don’t
separate the verbs from each other with commas.
b. The editor of the newspaper and a reporter attended.
Here we have two compound subjects who are doing one action. We don’t put a comma
to separate compound subjects.
c. The librarian ordered several newly published books as well as some
periodicals.
We have one person who did one action pertaining to two objects- compound objects.
We don’t use a comma to separate two compound objects.
d. Both the starkness and the beauty of America’s deserts are themes of O’Keefe’s paintings.
We don’t put a comma to separate the subjects from the verb.

Vocabulary-


Coincide- To match exactly
Collaborate- To work together
Condone- To excuse by seeming to overlook
Construe- To interpret
Contemplate- Meditate upon
Deter- To restrain through fear or doubt
Disparage- To belittle
Emanate- To flow forth
Exemplify- To serve as an example of
Alacrity- Lively willingness
Chagrin - Shame
Consternation- Amazement and terror
Dilemma- A predicament
Enigma- A puzzle
Innovation- New method or custom

Altruistic- Unselfishly concerned for others
Astute- Shrewd
Authentic- Genuine
Cumulative- Tending to increase
Despondent- Dejected
Imperial- Majestic
Emancipate- Liberate
Mediate- To act as go-between
Reciprocate- Repay an obligation
Reconcile- To bring to agreement
Relegate- To banish or to reduce to lower status
Subsidize- To provide financial aid
Usurp- To seize (power or control) unlawfully
Vindictive- To justify

Perspicacity- Mental penetration
Prerogative- Privilege
Propensity- Natural tendency
Propriety- Conformity to accepted standards of behavior
Restitution- Restoration
Surfeit- Excess
Latent- Hidden or unrevealed
Partisan- One sided
Recumbent- Reclining or leaning
Salient- Prominent
Succinct- Terse
Tangible- Real
Tentative- Provisional

Aggressive- Assertive, quick to attack
Arrogant- Haughty
Cynical- Scornfully distrustful
Dogmatic- Unduly positive
Fastidious- Daintily refined, very discriminating
Gregarious- Sociable
Impetuous- Rushing with great force
Nostalgic- Homesick
Sinuous- Curving or winding
Taciturn- Habitually silent
Truculent- Fierce
Versatile- Many sided in abilities
Volatile- Changeable

Annihilate- Destroy utterly
Capitulate- Surrender on certain terms
Extenuate- Make less serious
Fulminate- To explode, erupt, shout violently
Instigate- Provoke
Mitigate- Lessen
Auspicious- Promising
Equivocal- Vague
Expedient- Suitable
Intrinsic- Actual
Mystical- Participating in mysterious spiritual experience
Sacrilegious- Irreverent
Salubrious- Healthful

Coalition- Combination or alliance
Covenant- Solemn agreement or compact
Incentive- Stimulus
Paradox- Self- contradictory statement
Paragon- Perfect model
Plagiarism- The stealing of ideas
Solstice- Time when the sun is farthest from the equator
Aesthetic- Responsive to beauty
Exotic- Strange, foreign
Ineffable- Unutterable
Portentous- Foreshadowing evil
Relevant- Pertinent
Sadistic- Cruel, fond of cruelty

SS midterm- Chapters 10/11/12

The north and south developed very differently:
1. North- was industrialized. Immigrants flooded the north in search of jobs.
2. South- was agricultural and rural.

In 1846, Congress debated the Wilmot Proviso- a bill that wanted to outlaw slavery in the new territories America had just received from Mexico. The northerners liked this bill- they didn’t want anymore slave states, because this would mean more southern representation in Congress. The south didn’t like the bill because they wanted slaves. The south felt that slaves are property and the constitution protects a person’s property.

In 1849, California asked to be admitted into the union as a free state. The southerners felt that California should be a slave state because the weather is warm, and good for slaves. Zachary Taylor also opposed California’s entry into the union as a free state. He felt that the slavery issue shouldn’t be a congressional issue; every state should come into the union however they want. The southerners were extremely passionate about the slavery issue- they felt that it shouldn’t be a back burner issue.

When Congress met, it was a very volatile Congress that met. There were three intense issues on the table:
1. Statehood for California.
2. The north felt that at least the capital district should abolish slavery, because how could the capital itself have slaves?
3. Fugitive Slave law- this law had been passed almost in the beginning of the formation of the nation. It stated that if a runaway slave ever reached the north and was spotted by a northerner, the northerner had to send him back to the south. The south felt that this law was ignored and that the north was helping runaway slaves. They wanted the laws tightened.
The south was very tense. They felt that if their need for slaves wasn’t going to be understood, they would have to leave the nation.

At this moment of tension, Clay came up with the Compromise of 1850-
1. California is a free state.
2. Strict Fugitive Slave laws.
3. Popular Sovereignty in the new territory- decide by themselves if they want to be a slave state or a free state.
4. The Federal government gave Texas ten million dollars to settle the border dispute in favor of New Mexico.

This caused sparked a tremendous debate in Congress- Daniel Webster was for the compromise and John Calhoun was against it. The debates went on for two years, and then they both died.

A new young fellow, Stephen Douglas said that the compromise should be passed in pieces. Taylor died in office, and Millard Fillmore became the new president. He was in favor of the compromise.

The Compromise of 1850 passed in pieces. It made the Fugitive Slave law stricter. The north was upset because they felt that the Fugitive Slave law was nasty. The north tried to ignore the Fugitive Slave law after it became stricter. Some abolitionists tried to help runaway slaves, but many northerners did follow the law. Abolitionists together with the freed slaves formed the Underground Railroad. Harriet Tubman was a conductor of this railroad.

Harriet Beacher Stowe wrote a fictitious novel called “Uncle Tom’s Cabin”, in which she made it very graphically clear to all who read it about the evils of slavery. Many southerners wrote their own books about slavery.

In 1854, the issue of slavery erupted once again. Stephan Douglas, the senator from Illinois, proposed that the Nebraska territory should be divided into Nebraska and Kansas. Douglas had a few different motives for this:
1. He thought that most of the nation wants to see territories form into states.
2. He felt it would bring unity because everyone would be the same- they would all be states and have representatives in Congress. He thought it would rid the country of the lawlessness of territories.
3. He thought that everyone would be happy with this because the territory was being dived into one free state and one slave state.
4. Douglas had his own personal reason- he lived in Illinois and owned land. Douglas wanted a railroad in his town because this would up the value of his property. Douglas knew that the south would never vote for a railroad through his home town, so he offered them popular sovereignty in the land north of 36’’ 30°.
This act was heavily debated in Congress, but it passed.

Kansas is now getting ready for statehood. Now, the people in Kansas are going to vote whether or not they want slaves. Many people both for and anti slavery flooded Kansas. Abolitionist John Brown killed hundreds of people who were pro slavery. The violence didn’t end there, and spread to Congress- one senator clubbed another senator.

As the debate over slavery grew more intense, old political parties fell apart and new parties formed. The Whig party now lost political power because the party was dividing into pro and anti slavery.

Franklin Peirce won the election of 1852. He was a democrat.

A new political party was now forming- the American party. This party was anti immigrants. At this time, many immigrants were flooding the country. Nativists were worried because they felt that the immigrants:
1. Were taking away job opportunities.
2. Were from a different religion. Many immigrants were Roman Catholic. Nativists felt that they would therefore listen to the pope before the government.

This party became nicknamed the Know Nothing party because there were many secrets meetings and dealings to ostracize immigrants. When people would ask party members about their party, they would say they knew nothing.

Anti slavery parties formed now such as the Free Soil party. They opposed the extension of slavery into the new territories.

Northerners weren’t against slavery out of compassion for the blacks. Most of the north actually discriminated against the blacks, making them live in segregated areas. While there were some abolitionists, most northerners were against slavery from an intellectual standpoint- they felt it wrecks the free enterprise system because slaves aren’t getting paid, and this knocks workers out of the picture.

A new Republican party formed. It didn’t want slavery extended in the new territories. It took on many view points not related to slavery. The Republican party was a little broader than the American and Free Soil parties. They put up John Freemont as a candidate in the election of 1856.

The Democrats put up James Buchanan and he won. Buchanan was out of the country during the Kansas issue so people felt that he was out of slavery. Buchanan was the only bachelor as president. He led during a very volatile time in US history and wasn’t a very strong leader.

There were many hot issues:
1. Dred- Scott case- Dred Scott was a slave who came to the Supreme Court in 1857. Dred lived down south with his master, and then his master moved north. Dred went from Missouri to Illinois to Wisconsin, and was freed. When his master went back south, Dred became a slave again. Dred wanted to be free because he used to be free. This case reached the Supreme Court ni Dred Scott vs. Sanford. Five out of the nine judges were southerners. Chief Justice Roger Taney issued a shocking ruling:
a. Blacks aren’t citizens and have no right to petition in the Supreme Court.
b. Slaves are property- the US government pledges to protect people’s property, therefore the Missouri Compromise of 1820 is unconstitutional because it said that one could own a slave in the south, but not in the north.
c. This was a fabulous victory for the south and a resounding defeat for the north.
2. In 1858, another slavery issue arose- the Lincoln-Douglas debate. A position for the state senator of Illinois was open and both Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas were vying for the position.
a. Douglas- well known politician, natty dresser, short, stout, was a dynamic speaker.
b. Lincoln- tall, skinny, wore rumpled clothing which he often slept in, was a newcomer to politics, simple speaker- spoke in vernacular.
c. The two were involved in debates across the state of Illinois, which captured the nation. Slavery was a major topic of the debates, but none of them discussed ending slavery where it already existed. They discussed slavery in the new territories. Douglas wanted popular sovereignty in the new territories, but Lincoln didn’t. Lincoln added the idea of slavery being a moral wrong. Douglas won the senate seat, and Lincoln emerged on the political scene.
3. Harpers Ferry- in 1859, John Brown said that a voice from god spoke to him and he felt that he had to free all the slaves. Brown prepared a slave rebellion- he’ll go with a group of people and they’ll attack Harpers Ferry, Virginia where there was a federal arsenal. Then they’ll give out the guns to all the slaves and they’ll kill their masters and slavery will end. Brown went with a couple of men- he tried to attack and was caught and later hanged. This awoke a passion in American people- the north felt that Brown was a martyr and the south felt that this is what happens to a treasonous young man.

The election of 1860 was a four-way race. Lincoln ran as a Republican. While he didn’t receive a single southern vote, he still won. The southern states felt that obviously they didn’t have that much political clout and that America was going on a path different than theirs because Lincoln made it clear that he didn’t care for slavery.

The south felt that they should now secede. In December of 1860, South Carolina broke away. By February of 1861, six more state seceded. These seven states formed their own country called the Confederate States of America. They set up their own government and Jefferson Davis became president. Their constitution was somewhat similar to the US’s with two basic differences:
1. Slavery is legal across the country.
2. There is limited federal power, but the real power comes from the states.

Lincoln took office in March. He didn’t want to start a war with the Confederacy. Although Lincoln felt that it was illegal to secede, he waited. The Confederacy began taking over legal buildings in the south such as post offices and forts. Lincoln didn’t want to do anything confrontational so he sent food to the legal buildings. The south attacked Fort Sumter and took it over. At this point, Lincoln felt that he was going to go to war because he wasn’t starting up, he was just responding.

The Civil war has now begun. The remaining slave states took sides- four more seceded and Maryland, Kentucky, Delaware and Missouri remained with the union. Everyone thought that this would be a nice, quick, easy war and both sides thought that the victory would be theirs. Both sides had advantages over the other side:
1. North-
a. More people.
b. Better technology-
i. Better production of food.
ii. Railroads to transport food and soldiers.
c. Very able president.
2. South- had better generals- Robert E. Lee was a West Point trained general. All the south had to do to win the war was do nothing- they broke away and now the north has to win them back. The south was eager to defend their way of life- they had a passion about what they were fighting for.

Many battles were fought. The single bloodiest day was the Battle of Antietam, Maryland. The north forced Lee to retreat. History says that had the north chased Lee back to Virginia, they would’ve won.

The south had hope that England would join them. The south and England had a great relationship because the south sent England cotton, which the English depended on. However England didn’t join because:
1. They no longer needed southern cotton so desperately because they found other sources.
2. Lincoln was being pressured to free the slaves, and in January of 1863 he succumbed and issued the Emancipation Proclamation- freed all slaves in the rebelling territories. Lincoln didn’t view the Confederacy as a separate country, rather as rebels and he felt that he could make laws for them. The war used to be an intellectual war, a war about state rights. It now changed to a war for slavery; people were now fighting either for or against slavery. England had already freed their slaves in 1833 and wasn’t going to join the war pro slavery.
This made the south realize that if they lose the war, they’ll lose their whole way of life. They now fought with extreme intensity.

The north and south both had dissenters- people who were on a side but didn’t agree. Some people stayed neutral. Both sides suspended the writ of habeas corpus- this showed Lincoln’s power. He took away the people’s rights during the war. Suspending the writ of habeas corpus was wrong, but after the war was over, Congress said that it was indeed right because this action was needed to maintain order.

In 1863, General Lee attacked Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. After three bloody days, the north won. This was the bloodiest battle of the Civil war. The battle was the turning point of the war. The Battle of Vicksburg was another defeat for the south. The north was now on a steady pace to victory. Lee wanted to resign, but wasn’t given permission, as he led the south very well strategically.

A few months after the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln came and gave a short speech known as the Gettysburg Address. This speech spoke about the preservation of the union.

After these loses, the south was exhausted, worn down and many southerners were becoming disillusioned. Jefferson Davis was accused of being a lousy president. Meanwhile, Lincoln made Ulysses S. Grant the general over the entire northern army. Grant told Lincoln that he won’t stop fighting until the north won.

In spring of 1865, Grant and Lee met in Appomattox, Virginia. Lee surrendered there. Lincoln told Grant to be generous with Lee:
1. Southerners were allowed to keep their rifles for hunting.
2. The Confederate soldiers were paroled.

Legacy of the war-

The war changed the nation in many ways- the issue of states rights was over and the supremacy of the federal government was established- secession was never discussed again. During the Civil war was the first time there was a draft and the first time an income tax was placed on people- the war was very costly.

The Civil war affected the economy:
1. North- was booming. Factories churned out war materials and the federal government helped businesses by building railroads.
2. South- was devastated. The war was fought on southern territory and many southern lands were destroyed. Slavery was now over therefore the entire way of southern life ended.
The war intensified the gap between the north and the south.

Another change that occurred was through woman. Over the course of the war, many women took over men’s jobs such as working in the fields and factories. There were also nurses who went to the battlefield to help wounded soldiers. The hygiene on the battlefield was terrible, and some died because of it. One of these women was Clara Barton. After the war, she started the Red Cross to continue her good work.

The human cost of the war was tremendous- 500,000 died and 600,000 were wounded.

This war changed the way wars were now fought- they used rifle guns. This made shooting more accurate. They also had iron clad ships.

The lives of the African Americans changed drastically for the better. In 1865, the thirteenth amendment was passed. It abolished slavery in the United States of America.

Five days after Lee’s surrender, Lincoln was shot at Ford’s theater by John Wilkes Booth, a southern sympathizer.
Lincoln’s plan for reconstruction was a very mild program- he wanted it to be peaceful. Lincoln said that as long as they pledged loyalty they could come back into the nation. Lincoln’s plan couldn’t be carried out though because he was shot.

Vice president Andrew Johnson took over for Lincoln. He wasn’t as strong as Lincoln and was faced with tremendous opposition in Congress. He wanted to carry out Lincoln’s plan but Congress was full of Radical Republicans- they were strong people who wanted the south to be dealt with in a harsh manner.

The Radical Republicans were angry at the white south and wanted to help the black south. One way of punishing the whites was to be extra nice to the blacks. One famous Radical Republican was Thaddeus Stevens- he was so into them that he wanted to be buried with them. The Radicals in Congress didn’t want to be nice to the white south:
1. They set up the Freed Men’s Bureau- to help freed slaves set up lives. They gave them money for hospitals and for education.
2. They passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866- to give the blacks equality. It made all black codes illegal. Black codes were white laws to make blacks suppressed.

Johnson vetoed these acts. He said that they’re giving too much power to the Federal government. Congress overrode Johnson’s veto and the bills became laws.

Congress went ahead and passed the fourteenth amendment, which gave full citizenship to the blacks. Johnson encouraged states not to ratify it and it wasn’t ratified until 1868.

In the 1866 elections, the Radicals won enough seats in Congress to override Johnson’s vetoes regularly. This is an example of somewhere where one side has too much power.

They passed the Reconstruction act:
1. If any of the states managed to squeak in and reinstate themselves as a state during Lincoln or Johnson’s time, they’re invalid.
2. The south is now under military control.
3. The south shouldn’t think about reentering the union unless they ratify the fourteenth amendment.
4. Black men now got the right to vote.

Congress was looking for a way to impeach Johnson. They knew that Johnson wanted to fire the Secretary of War. Congress now passed the Office of Tenure act which stated that it’s illegal to fire a cabinet member. If it is done, it’s ground for impeachment. Johnson fired the Secretary of War and was impeached (also because he used vulgar language in Congress). The Senate found him not guilty by one vote.

In 1868, Ulysses S. Grant became president. Grant was a US general during the Civil war, so he used the tactic of “waving the bloody shirt”- look what I did for the nation, now vote for me.

In 1870, the fifteenth amendment was passed- it gave blacks the right to vote.

By 1870, all the Confederate states had joined the union. Reconstruction was heavily in effect- the Radicals were heavily involved in the south. They had military control and were making sure that the whites were giving the blacks their rights of equality. They were also there to build up the south post war.

Down south, there were people who joined the Republican Party:
1. African Americans that were down south were very excited with the opportunity to be a part of political parties and they loved what the Republicans were doing.
2. Scalawags- they were poor, white southerners. They were happy that the rich shouldn’t be powerful. Additionally, there were now business opportunities to make money.
3. Carpet baggers- they were northerners that came down south. Some that came were very idealistic- they wanted to change the south. Some were doctors, school teachers, etc. They came down south to help.
A lot of cartoons about the scalawags and carpet baggers were negative- they portrayed them as being friends with the black only because they wanted money.

After the Civil war, many blacks moved north looking for opportunities. Many stayed down south and benefited from the opportunities that were available for them. Some blacks were even a part of Congress.

During the years of reconstruction, the blacks were able to vote. The Radical Republicans controlled the white southerners. Schools were set up for the blacks. The Freed Men’s Bureau helped blacks find family members, readjust and set up schools.

Most of the blacks were promised “forty acres and a mule” during the war, but the government didn’t come through. Many blacks ended up being sharecroppers. Sharecroppers worked white land. They were given all the necessary materials but two- thirds of the crop went to the owner. Sharecroppers usually remained poor their whole lives. If they were successful, they became tenant farmers- rented the land from the white man. They had to pay for their own materials, but received all the profit. Cotton was no longer king in the south because synthetic materials were taking their place.

The collapse of reconstruction-

1. Many white southerners hated reconstruction. They hated the military rule and the fact that the blacks were getting equality. A secret group called the Ku Klux Klan was formed to fight reconstruction. They were violent and would try to frighten blacks away from the voting poles.
2. As white southerners regained their seats in Congress, they fought the Radicals.
3. Grant’s government was corrupt.
4. Economic crisis- Panic of 1873.

Many American people said that they should move on from reconstruction and deal with the issues at hand.

Grant served for two terms. In the next election:
1. Republicans- Rutherford B. Hayes.
2. Democrats- Samuel Tilden.
Many southerners were now becoming Democrats because the powerful whites hated the Republicans. The south was leaning more and more democratic until it came to be known as the “Solid South”. Tilden won the popular votes, but was one vote short of the electoral majority. The decision went to the House of Representatives. A political bargain was made- the southern senators said that they’ll let Hayes win but they have to end reconstruction- they have to get every Republican out and restore home rule. They also had to make sure there would be a southern cabinet member. Reconstruction now officially ended.

The minuet the Radicals left the south, the whites took over and crushed the blacks. They put all the Jim Crowe laws into effect- the laws of segregation:
1. The blacks could no longer vote.
2. Separate schools.
3. Separate parks.
4. Separate busses.
5. Set up a poll tax.
6. Literacy test.
If someone did pay the tax, they usually failed the test. The Ku Klux Klan frightened anyone who got past both the poll tax and literacy test. The whites didn’t have to worry about these new laws because they fell under the Grandfather clause- if your grandfather voted, then you’re exempt.

Some say that reconstruction was successful because at least the amendments were passed.

History: Chapter 9

Chapter 9: Expanding Markets and the Nation Moves West

At this point in history, the US experienced tremendous economic change- America industrialized. This is known as a market revolution. Now, people did business very differently. They bought and sold goods instead of producing on their own. This process depends on capitalism. Capitalism is the system in which private businesses or private individuals control production to make a profit. Capitalism depends on entrepreneurs to invest in the businesses.

Life for farmers changed too:
1. New machinery
2. Improved technology
3. Cash crops

Inventions and improvements that changed US lives:
1. Vulcanized rubber- treated rubber that resists cold and heat. This was invented by Charles Goodyear
2. Sewing machine- was invented by Elias Howe and perfected by I.M. Singer. The sewing machined changed life for woman; they could now make a dress 75% quicker.
3. Telegraph- was invented by Samuel Morse. The telegraph revolutionized communication between cities. Railroads used the telegraph to regulate the train schedule.
4. Steam boat- was invented by Robert Fulton. The steam boats were a new way to carry freight down rivers. They were very exciting but extremely dangerous.

The railroads became more popular than the steam boat because they were faster, but they were expensive. Eventually the price dropped and slowly, the country began building more and more rails. The railroads connected the nation north and south. The canals connected the nation east and west.

The northeast became the nation’s business’s manufacturing center and the Midwest became the nation’s farming center. New inventions helped farmers such as:
1. Steel plow- invented by John Deere.
2. Reaper- was invented by Cyrus McCormick. The reaper cut and bundled wheat.
These inventions decreased the farmer’s work tremendously and work could be done faster, so that there was an increase in output and farms became lucrative.

The railroads connected the north and west- they brought machinery out west and farm goods to the east. The railroads served as the connecting force of the nation.

Much of this technological surge bypassed the south because the south had slaves who did the work. They didn’t need the machinery to upgrade, but the south still grew cash crops such as:
1. Cotton- number one crop.
2. Tobacco- secondary crop.
3. Rice- secondary crop.

Manifest destiny- the American people believe that it’s our right to control all the land out west from sea to shining sea.

There were smaller ideas blended with manifest destiny that got people to move out west:
1. The spreading of democracy.
2. Missionaries are always eager for new lands to either convert people, or start a new community that follows their religion.
3. Economic importance- the Panic of 1837 caused many people to lose money and they thought that by going out west, they would make money.
4. New markets- new markets could be found in Mexico, and could trade with Asia through California, which is on the Pacific Ocean.

As the settlers moved west, they met up with Indians and fought. The Americans made treaties with the Indians. One of the more famous treaties was the treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851- we promised the Indians the Great Plains. The treaties were broken over and over again.

Routes that the settlers took as they moved west:
1. Santa Fe Trail- left from Independence, Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico. This was basically a business route. It opened up the southwest and the Mexican and Spanish goods to America.
2. Oregon Trail- this trail was full of danger. It went from Independence, Missouri to Portland, Oregon. Many people traveled on this trail, and many died along the way.

One group that traveled on the Oregon Trail was the Mormons, led by Joseph Smith. The Mormons suffered religious persecution and Smith was killed. Their new leader was Brigham Young. Young suggested that if the Mormons move out west away from persecution, they’ll be successful. They went on the Oregon Trail, but never reached Oregon. They stopped in Salt Lake City, Utah and still remain there today. (The Mormons practice polygamy.)

About five thousand Americans settled in the Oregon territory. American and England vied over Oregon. America wanted it for manifest destiny and England wanted it for their business beaver hats and beaver furs. In 1844, one of the campaign ideas of President James K. Polk was “54’ 40° or fight”- we’ll get the Oregon territory of fight for it. Beaver went out of style, the English weren’t so interested in the territory anymore, so they compromised at the 49th parallel. Today, this is the northern border of the US and Canada.

Expanding into Texas-

Texas was a region in Mexico. Mexico was a huge country that had been colonized by the Spanish. In the early 1830s, it became independent. Mexico was looking to develop their northern territories, among them Texas. The Mexicans encouraged the English speaking Anglos to settle there. Anglos could move into Mexico if they promised to be Roman Catholics and follow the Mexican rule. Mexico gave away a lot of land for free.

The Anglos didn’t view themselves as Mexicans- they viewed themselves as an American colony in Mexico. One leader, Stephen Austin, was an American. He got a huge land grant from Mexico and he subdivided the land among many Americans, and they were living happily.

The Mexicans began getting nervous because the number of English people was becoming larger than the number of Mexican people in the northern territory of Mexico. The Americans were unhappy because:
1. They had to be Roman Catholics.
2. They were farmers and had slaves with them, but Mexico had outlawed slaves already.

In 1830, Mexico closed their borders and the Mexican troops began snooping around and enforcing laws, so the Americans got agitated. Austin went to speak to the Mexican leaders to ask for self government from Mexico for the Americans living there. The Mexican leader, Antonis Lopez de Santa Anna promptly threw Austin in jail.

After Austin was released, he told his people that they have to fight for themselves. There were a series of skirmishes which later came to be known as the Texas Revolution. One of the most important battles was the battle of Alamo. There were 187 Americans who used the Alamo, a mission building, as a fort. The Americans were shooting the Mexicans, and the Mexicans shot back. This went on for twelve days until the Mexicans scaled the walls of the Alamo and killed everyone inside. This became the American battle cry- remember the Alamo and how bad the Mexicans were.

Sam Houston was commander of one of the troops. He captured Santa Anna and forced him to sign away Texas’s freedom. The Americans in Texas celebrated their freedom. They were their own country- the Republic of Texas, and were recognized as a country by France and England. This took place in 1836.

The Texans thought that the US would annex them. In 1838, Houston, who was the president of Texas, asked to be annexed and America refused because the northerners didn’t want to allow another slave state into the union.

In 1844, Polk became president. Polk was both an expansionist and a slave holder and in 1845, Texas was admitted into the union. Mexico was fuming and Polk was really happy- he was nicknamed Polk the Purposeful. Polk agitated war against Mexico. He told General Zachary Taylor to start mobilizing troops near the Rio Grande River. When the Americans began to mobilize, Mexico felt that it was a violation of territorial rights. America had to decide whether or not to start a war- the north didn’t want more slave states, so they weren’t excited about war, but Polk wanted war.

In 1845, America sent scouts into California (part of Mexico) to check out the territory. In response, Mexico sent troops into Texas, and eleven Americans were killed. Polk told Congress that they must declare war, and they did.

The US army, led by General Stephen Kearny, marched troops into Santa Fe, New Mexico. Without a single casualty, they seized it and moved into California. California had already declared independence (called themselves the Bear Flag State), and asked to be joined.

The American troops continued on and had one victory after another. The Mexican troops tried to defend their land, but their army was outdated and very top heavy. America had just graduated their first class from West Point and was excited to try out new war strategies.

America took over Mexico City, and now they won. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo gave the US a lot of territory, increasing the size of America by one- third. The US received:
1. California
2. New Mexico
3. Nevada
4. Utah
5. Arizona (part)
6. Wyoming (part)
7. Colorado (part)

In 1853, the US purchased some land under New Mexico from Mexico in the Gadsen Purchase. This land was purchased in order to lay railroad tracks through it. This purchase settled our southwest border until today.

In the election of 1848, Zachary Taylor, a general during the Mexican- American war, was elected as president. He was from the Whig party.

In 1848, American settlers discovered gold in California. Americans, known as the forty-niners, flooded California in search of gold. California became a boom town over night. It wasn’t the prospectors who became rich, rather the people who sold items to the forty-niners.

The California Gold Rush brought thousands of people into California, making it ready for statehood. This spurred on a debate in Congress of whether California should be a free state or a slave state.

History: Chapter 8

Chapter 8: Reform in America

In the early 1800s, America experienced its second Great Awakening- religious revival. Religion again became popular in America and the modicum was through powerful preachers. The mindset of this era was that people thought they were doomed to purgatory and they had to creep their way out.

Transcendentalism is a philosophical and literary movement, which was the brain child of Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was a writer and he believed that you can bring change through your thoughts and ideas. He discussed the ideas of truth that can be learned through nature. He said one should look inside himself and remove himself from the vicissitudes of society. Many transcendentalists moved out of the hub of life and into forests. One example of this was the writer Thoreau. He moved into a hut in the forest and didn’t come out for two years. He wrote “On Walden Pond” while he was alone.

Transcendentalism awoke the need for change. One of the areas of change was creating utopian societies, which were formed in order to find perfection. They wanted to build a community where everyone would live peacefully and in harmony, but none of them were successful.

Specific changes that took place:
1. Education- in early America, schools weren’t established and villages arranged education privately amongst themselves. In the 1830s was the start of state funded education. Slowly, more states began to take the responsibility for education, but It took a while for it to become an accepted thing. Horace Mann was the superintendent of schools in Massachusetts and he spent more money than ever before on education. He also made up curriculums and teacher training sessions- he made education real. Soon many states copied.
2. Prisoners and mental institutions- prisoners and people in mental institutions were horribly treated. Dorothy Dix went to prisons and institutions and saw the horrid treatment the inhabitants were receiving. She campaigned heavily for improvements in these institutions and was successful. (People still do this today.)
3. Slavery and abolition movement- abolitionists were people who wanted to abolish slavery. For years, African Americans that had been freed from slavery had campaigned for the abolition of slavery. Now, in the early 1800s, many preachers advocated for the end of slavery. Abolitionists:
a. William Lloyd Garrison. He was also the editor of an anti- slavery newspaper, “The Liberator”.
b. David Walker- was a freed slave who told African Americans to fight for their independence.
c. Fredrik Douglas- was a black slave who gained his freedom by escaping to the north. He befriended Garrison and worked for him for many years. Douglas was an exceptional speaker. Eventually, he began to publish his own newspaper called “The North Star”.
As the debate over slavery was growing, so was slavery itself. From 1810 to 1830, the slave population doubled in America. The whole institution of slavery now changed. It used to be mostly male workers who weren’t paid. By the 1830s, there were males, females and children who were American born working from dusk to dawn, some even longer. There were also slaves who worked in the cities, in the mills and mines.
In 1831, a Virginia slave named Nat Turner led a violent slave rebellion. He hit five southern plantations and killed all the white men in their beds. By the time he got to the fifth plantation, he was caught and executed.
The Nat Turner Rebellion sparked a new debate- some southerners were scared and felt maybe slavery should be abolished. In Virginia, they even tried to pass a law abolishing slavery, but it didn’t pass. The other side felt that the laws over the slaves had to be tightened so the slaves would be heavily controlled. There were some southerners who defended slavery, saying that it’s a wonderful thing- uncivilized people are now becoming Christian, and being taken care of for life.
In Congress the debates continued. The south was afraid that if the debates lasted long enough, slavery might be put to an end, so they passed the Gag Rule in 1836- debates can be limited. In 1845, the Gag Rule was lifted.

Woman and reforms:

Woman in America were treated as inferior beings and second class citizens. They didn’t have the right to own property or have custody over their children. Men had the right to beat their wives. Woman was bound by the cult of domesticity- the idea that woman belong at home.

There were woman who worked to improve life for woman:
1. Sisters Angelina and Sara Grimke- were also abolitionists. Along with other woman, they worked in the Temperance movement- to get men to stop drinking. Why? Because when men drink, the beat their wives. Many women joined. Factory owners also joined because drunk workers don’t perform well.
2. Emma Willard (New York) and Mary Lyon (Massachusetts) opened up girls high schools. Lyon’s school was called Holyoke. They faced much opposition.
3. Katherine Beecher was another woman who bought change. She researched woman’s health issues because woman used to be very sickly. She came up with the interesting finding that it was because:
a. They needed to get out and exercise more.
b. Their mode of dress was terrible, directly leading to illness.
4. Amanda Bloomer printed a pattern for a loose fitting pair of pants in the newspaper so woman should have more comfortable clothing. Bloomers gave woman the ability to move around more freely
5. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott wanted to bring woman rights, so they campaigned heavily. In 1848, they met at the Seneca Falls convention with other woman. Stanton and Mott spoke and explained the problems at hand. At the meeting, they read the Declaration of Sentiments, which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence. It stated that all men and woman are created equally and listed all their problems. This convention was considered to be the start of the woman’s rights movement.
6. Sojourner Truth- she was a black who fought for the abolition of slavery and woman’s rights.

The changing work place:

Now, America was moving into factories. Goods were no longer produced by artisans; they were now made in factories.

Many people were excited about this. In Lowell, Massachusetts, the mill girls (hired girls because they could be paid less) were excited to leave the field and go work in factories, bringing home money. The factories were social and interactive. Slowly, over time, work in the mills changed. The day was extended without an increase in pay. The factory owners demanded greater output- the workload was tripled, and the amount of workers was only doubled.

The mill girls went on strike. Most of the strikes were unsuccessful, but they didn’t give up. It was an extreme uphill battle. The strikes were unsuccessful mostly because of strikebreakers- people who broke the strikes. Strikebreakers were mostly immigrants, and many were Irish. Why were many Irish strikebreakers? Because the Irish were poor and were willing to work for less. There was a lot of prejudice against the Irish because:
1. They were the strikebreakers.
2. They were Roman Catholic.
Nevertheless, people still went on strike.

One of the first labor unions formed was the National Traitors Union in 1834. In the 1830s and 40s, the courts sided with the factory owners, besides for the one exception of Commonwealth vs. Hunt.

US History and Government - Test 4

George Washington was unanimously chosen as president. He was a general that inspired everyone and it was understood that he would become president.

This was just as the founding fathers had wanted it to be- there would be candidates running for the presidency. The one who received the most electoral votes would become the president and the one who received the second-to-most votes would become the vice president. In the case of a tie, the House of Representatives was to decide. This idea of a presidency in dispute going to the House of Representatives is still done to this day. Then the problem of political parties arose- by voting in this way, it was possible to have a president from one political party and the vice president from another. Because of this, the twelfth amendment was added to the constitution stating that one can vote for both the president and the vice president, but they now run as a team.

George Washington was the first president therefore he was the first to do and decide upon many things. Washington was a formal president and he felt the weight of the presidency upon him.

The first thing that was done was to set up a justice department. In 1789, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789 in which they set up a system of federal courts. Today there are ninety two federal courts in the country.

The president also set up his cabinet. Today, the president’s cabinet has fifteen members. The original cabinet started out with only three:
1. Secretary of State- Thomas Jefferson.
2. Secretary of Treasury- Alexander Hamilton.
3. Secretary of War- Henry Knox.

Almost immediately, the differences of opinion of the men of the cabinet surfaces. Alexander Hamilton wanted to set up the country on a strong economic base. He had many different programs to do so, and among them was to:
1. Pay back all the debts accrued during the Revolutionary War. He thought it would make the state a more respectable nation and other countries would do business with us.
2. Pay up the debt within the nation. He though to make the rich people happy would be good for the nation too. Many opposed this:
a. Jefferson felt that since only a small percentile was wealthy, this wasn’t fair and the government should cater to the poor majority.
b. Many of the southern states were also against this because they paid up their debts and would now be taxed for the North’s debt. Hamilton told the southern states that if they went along with his plant to assume the state’s debt then the nation’s capital would be built in the south.

Hamilton wanted a federal bank because he felt that it would make the nation strong and keep the wealthy involved. How? Because a bank is a business and the rich invest in banks. Jefferson didn’t want a federal bank because he felt that banks are agents of the rich and hurt the poor because poor people borrow money and then have to pay back with interest. Jefferson also said that it doesn’t mention opening a federal bank anywhere in the constitution. Hamilton said that it falls under the elastic clause because it says that you can tax the people and the money has to be kept somewhere.

Now was the start of political views:
1. Hamilton with his men and their views= Federalists. They believed that:
a. The federal government should be strong.
b. The federal government should service the wealthy.
c. The constitution should be interpreted very loosely.
d. If an ally has to be chosen, it should be England.
2. Jefferson with his men and their views= Jeffersonian Republicans/Democratic Republican- Republicans. They believed:
a. In the rights of the state and the people.
b. The poor should be looked out for.
c. The constitution should be interpreted very narrowly.
d. If an ally has to be chosen, it should be the French.

George Washington was unhappy with the different political parties but after the first election with political parties the nation realized it was good because it allowed a change in political views without bloodshed.

As Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton imposed many taxes on the people. He also wanted to show the power of the federal government- that it’s strong and can and will make sure all their laws are carried out. In order to prove this, Hamilton placed and excise tax on whiskey. This angered the farmers in western Pennsylvania who made whiskey. They said that they won’t pay the tax and they made the Whiskey Rebellion. Hamilton sent a whole army out west and the entire rebellion was put down without one single death.

Foreign Affairs:
1. After Washington stepped into office, the French Revolution broke out. Washington said that the US will remain neutral. This idea of neutrality was very important to Washington. In his farewell address, Washington told America to steer clear of permanent alliances because they are a young and fledgling nation.
2. Northwest territory issues:
a. The Americans began settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. Many settled in the northwest territory of:
i. Ohio
ii. Illinois
iii. Michigan
iv. Wisconsin
v. Indiana
They met up with Indians and there were major fights. The issues were resolved in 1794 with the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
b. The British still remained in the Northwest Territory. John Jay was sent to Britain to work out this issue among some others. The Jay Treaty was formed and the British left the Northwest Territory, but not all the other issues were resolved.

After two terms in office, Washington retired. Federalist John Adams became the next president, and Republican Thomas Jefferson was the vice president.

This election highlighted the problem of sectionalism. Almost the entire south voted for Jefferson and almost all of the north voted for Adams.

John Adams faced a foreign affairs crisis- the French began attacking and abusing the US ships. Adams sent high ranking diplomats to talk to the French about this problem. The French humiliated the US by meeting their diplomats with low level men. The French men said that if the US diplomats want to meet with the French diplomats, they need to pay. This came to be known in America as the XYZ Affair. Some Federalists felt that war should be waged against France. Adams said not to go to war and that he would work it out. Over the next couple of years, he did work it out.

Adams was upset with the Republican Party because they were making fun of him. He felt that this was extremely wrong and would weaken the government. He felt that you must respect your president.

Adams decided to blame the immigrants within the Republican Party- he felt that maybe they were the ones doing it. Adams worked to push the Alien and Sedition Act through Congress. These acts made it more difficult for an immigrant to become a citizen and handed out harsh punishment to people that criticized the government.

These acts did get passed and the Republicans said that this is the first amendment abuse. Madison and Jefferson in their states passed the Kentucky- Virginia Resolution, which nullified the Alien and Sedition Acts. Then the issue rose of whether a state can nullify a federal law. Some felt they could and some felt otherwise. This issue remained a hot volatile until the Civil War.

In the election of the 1800s, Jefferson the Republican ran against Adams. This was a heavily disputed election, and came out to be very close. Jefferson won Adams by eight electoral votes. Jefferson’s vice president Aaron Burr got the same number of electoral votes as Jefferson, and now there was a tie. The issue went to the House of Representatives. Hamilton convinced the House of Representatives to vote for Jefferson, and Jefferson became president.

After this election, the twelfth amendment was added to the constitution. It said that the president and vice president would be voted for as a team.

Jefferson believed in less power to the federal government and more power to the people and state. Jefferson reduced the size of the army and reduced the power of the federal bank.
Jefferson was a much less formal president then Washington and Adams. He didn’t host formal balls and bow when talking to people.

The founding fathers were excited that there was a transition of ideas without bloodshed.

The next few presidents were Republicans. The Federalists lost their power in this area, but remained strong in the Judiciary branch. When Adams realized he lost the presidency, he still had a few months (November to March) and he worked to push through the Judiciary Act of 1801. This act increased the number of judges in the Supreme Court. Adams appointed John Marshall as the Chief Justice. The Federalist ruling was handed down for the next thirty years. Major debates arose over the judges that were appointed. Being that this law was passed in the eleventh hour, these judges were nicknamed the Midnight Appointees. Marbury never received the paper that he was appointed and Jefferson didn’t want to give him his paper of appointment. Marbury said that according to the Judiciary Act of 1789, Jefferson had to give it to him. This event went to the Supreme Court and became known as Marbury vs. Madison. John Marshall didn’t want to anger the president but wanted to strengthen the federal power, so he used judicial review. He looked into the law and the constitution and said that the Judiciary Act of 1789 is unconstitutional, therefore Marbury’s arguments are void and he doesn’t receive the job.

The Louisiana Territory was owned by France and was used as their breadbasket to feed their colonies in the Caribbean, particularly Haiti. Haiti was a lucrative French colony that grew sugar. In 1803, Toussaint Le Overture led a rebellion in Haiti and France lost its colony. France didn’t need the Louisiana Territory anymore so they offered it to America for fifteen million dollars. The American diplomats purchased it, and when they approached Jefferson about buying it, he said he doesn’t know if according to the constitution he could buy land, but since it was such a bargain, he signed the treaty. Jefferson signed because he wanted to spread American liberty. He now increased the power of the Federal government by doubling the size of the nation.

Jefferson sent Louis and Clarke to explore the new land. They returned with all the vegetation, soil samples, different wildlife and spoke glorious news of the chunk of land.

In 1804, Jefferson won the election; the nation was happy. Quite soon after he began his second term, Jefferson was met up with a big problem. The British were attacking American ships and impressing the sailors- taking them into their army and navy. Jefferson decided to place an embargo on the British, but this stifled American businesses so it was a major flop. Two years after it was placed, the embargo was lifted.

In 1808, James Madison became president, but the anger against the British didn’t vanish.

A group of young congressmen called the War Hawks (among them Henry Clay) advocated war against the British because:
1. They impressed our soldiers.
2. As the Americans were moving into Indian territory, they met up with Indians and there was a thought that the British were supplying them with weapons.
3. Border issue in Canada.

Madison took the nation into war in the War of 1812. The Americans didn’t win a single battle and the White House was burnt down. During this war, the Star Spangled Banner was written by Francis Scott Key. Not everyone was in favor of war. The New England merchants felt war would wreck their business with England.

The one battle America did win was won after the Treaty of Ghent was signed. It was known as the Battle of New Orleans. The general of the battle was Andrew Jackson. They fought because news had not yet reached that the war was over. The Treaty of Ghent didn’t resolve any of the issues we went to war over, but America was very happy- we had fought a powerful nation and fought successfully. In 1816, all the issues were resolved. The War of 1812 was the start of the wonderful relationship we have with England. This war is also known as the War of Independence because now England recognized the US as a nation.

During the 1800s, the Industrial Revolution in England spread across Europe and to America. One of the ideas that helped spur on the revolution was Eli Whitney’s invention of interchangeable parts. This caused a change in how things were made- instead of making everything complete, things were made with standardized parts. Molds were formed so that many parts could be made at once, allowing for mass production.

In the mid 1800s, things really took off and manufacturing was no longer done in the home. England didn’t allow people in the manufacturing sector to leave the country so as not to give out ideas. Samuel Slater memorized the plans for the textile factory he worked in and went to work as a farmer. He left England as a farmer and went to America, and set up the first textile mill in New England. Slowly, towns turned into factory centers, for example the town of Lowell, Massachusetts hosted a textile mill, shaping the North into a manufacturing center.

The South was changed by Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, which separated the seeds from the cotton puff. Before this, one worker could clean one pound of cotton per day. Now, one worker could clean fifty pounds of cotton per day. All of the sudden, cotton became such a lucrative crop; they could make so much money from it. Cotton became king in the South. The cotton gin revolutionized the way of agriculture in the South and huge plantations developed to produce cotton. To keep these plantations running, slaves were needed so slavery became entrenched in the South.

Henry Clay, a powerful congressman felt that the country had to be unified. He had a plan called the American System, which was divided into three parts:
1. Put a protective tariff on foreign goods- by taxing imports, people will be more likely to do business within the country. The South didn’t like this idea because they didn’t do so much manufacturing, so they didn’t benefit. In 1816, the tariff was passed even though there was opposition.
2. Build infrastructure to connect different parts of the country. At this point, the National Road was built. It went from Maryland to Illinois. Canals were also built, such as the Eerie canal.
3. Set up a Federal bank- Hamilton’s bank had run out. By controlling the banking system, he felt it would help control the monetary system across the nation and will help with business. This was also passed.
The American System was the start of our feelings of nationalism.

The Supreme Court was a federalist stronghold and passed down rulings that reflected their ideals. They ruled in favor of the National government. Cases:
1. McCulloch vs. Maryland- the court ruled that a state can’t pass a law that will go against a federal law. There was a federal bank in Maryland and the state of Maryland taxed the Federal bank almost enough to put it out of business. This was declared illegal.
2. Gibbons vs. Ogden- only the Federal government can regulate trade and the federal government is supreme over the states. Mr. Ogden worked for a shipping company that had the rights to ship between New York and New Jersey. He though he had exclusive rights over the waters. Gibbon was given the right by the federal government to ship on these waters.
3. Dartmouth College vs. Woodward- the court declared that the state of New Hampshire can’t revise a contract that was given to the college trustees long ago because a contract is a legal binding document and the constitution doesn’t allow the state to interfere with contracts. This gave businesses a confidence to open because it showed that contracts are valued.

John Quincy Adams was the Secretary of State. He established foreign policies on his beliefs on nationalism. He put the nation’s interests above the state’s interests in all dealings.
1. In 1819, he signed the Adams- Onis Treaty between the US and Spain. Spain gave Florida to the US. This increased our country’s size and we received it without a fight.
2. In 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was issued by President Monroe. It told all the nations of the world not to get involved with the western hemisphere- it doesn’t belong to you, so leave us alone and we’ll leave you alone. This included Latin America too. America didn’t let the European nations take colonies in Latin America because they didn’t want European powers in the south. They did this because they had the will to do it and were backed by England’s help.

The American pioneers were excited to move to the Louisiana Purchase. They could move west and settle the land. They had a very good, nationalistic feeling. Many immigrants and Americans moved out west. As they moved west, different territories became ready for statehood. In order to form a state, sixty thousand people had to be living in that territory. This led to problems in our nation.

At this point, there were twenty two states. Eleven believed in slavery and eleven didn’t. Missouri wanted to enter as a slave state. The Free states said no and there was an uproar in Congress. For about a year, Missouri was denied statehood. Henry Clay said it would work out because Maine, a free state, applied for statehood. Henry Clay said to divide the Louisiana Purchase at 36° 30’; north of this would be free and south of this would be slave. This came to be known as the Compromise of 1820 or the Missouri Compromise.

In 1824, John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams, became president. He was not as successful or popular as his father because of Andrew Jackson. Jackson ran against Adams in the election of 1824, and Adams just barely squeaked into the presidency. It wasn’t a smooth win because neither candidate received a majority of the electoral votes. The decision went to the House of Representatives, and Clay convinced the House to vote for Adams. Clay got appointed as Secretary of State.

Jackson’s followers felt that the election was stolen from him. They formed their own party known as the Democratic Republican party. For the next four years, they attacked Adam’s policies.

During his years in office, Adams lowered the voting restrictions. In the election of 1828, three times as many people came to vote.

During the election of 1828, Jackson campaigned. He was nicknamed Old Hickory. Jackson won by a landslide. He invited everyone to his inaugural ball so he received the name King Mob.

Jackson changed the system of government to the spoils system- “to the victor belongs the spoils”. He removed many of the government officials and replaced them with his own friends. He had his own personal group of advisors called the Kitchen Cabinet- the joke was that they came through the kitchen door, which is the back door.

Three major events of Jackson:
1. Indian removal- in the southeast of America (Carolinas, Georgia…) there were about five Indian tribes that had Americanized. They set up schools, a system of government with a two house legislature, and one tribe had a written language made up by Sequoia. These five tribes were called the Five Civilized Tribes. They just weren’t good enough for the Americans- they wanted their land and didn’t want to live with them. Jackson agreed and said that they should move elsewhere.
In 1830, Jackson together with Congress passed the Indian Removal Act to push the Indians past the Mississippi river. For the next few years, the federal government made different treaties with different tribes, taking away their land and pushing them toward the Mississippi river.
The Cherokee tribe said they wouldn’t move. They had a missionary friend who fought for them and took their case to the Supreme Court. In the case of Worchester vs. Georgia, John Marshall ruled in favor of the Indians. He said that the Indian Removal Act is unconstitutional. Jackson didn’t listen to Marshall’s ruling and in 1838, he shooed the Cherokee out. The Indians went on an eight thousand mile trek from Georgia to Mississippi. It was filled with danger and came to be known as the Trail of Tears.
2. Tariff and State rights- in 1816, Henry Clay with the American System passed a tariff. Over the years, the tariff was raised. The south was continuously aggravated by it because they had little industry of their own and weren’t benefiting from the tax. At that time, John Calhoun, a southerner, was vice president. At first he agreed with the tariff but over time, he saw that it was hurting the southern states so he spoke out against it.
In 1838, the Tariff of Abomination was passed. Calhoun said that it’s a despicable tariff and the states don’t have to pay it based on the principle of nullification. He said that if the state forbids the state from nullifying the law, they can even secede.
This led to major debates in Congress. Daniel Webster represented the north and he spoke for many days in Congress against nullification. Webster said that we are a nation of people, and not of separate states. Robert Hane of South Carolina represented the south and he defended nullification.
In 1832, the tariff was raised again and South Carolina decided to nullify it. They were backed by John Calhoun. Andrew Jackson said that he’s going to pass the Force law, forcing them to pay the tariff and follow the law. Henry Clay, the Great Compromiser, made a compromise- he worked with Congress and over the next ten years, the tariff was lowered. This didn’t resolve the issue of state rights- South Carolina nullified the Force law.
3. National Banks- Jackson hated the national bank because he felt that it was an agent for the wealthy. He wanted to destroy the Bank of the United States (BUS), so he removed all the federal money and put it in small pet banks. So as not to crumble, the BUS asked many of their investors to pay up their loans. This caused many businesses to go bankrupt.
1n 1836, the BUS closed and Jackson won his battle against the banks.

Jackson’s actions angered his own party members and others, so they formed the Whigs. They nicknamed Jackson King Andrew.

Jackson served two terms, and in 1836, Martin Van Buren won the presidency, Van Buren was a powerful politician. He was the brain behind the new campaign style. Jackson backed Van Buren and he won. Van Buren inherited an economic mess; banks and businesses were collapsing. The pet banks became known as wild cat banks- they invested foolishly. The country entered into a state of depression known as the Panic of 1837. Van Buren was now nicknamed Van Ruin.

In the election of 1840, Van Buren lost to a Whig by the name of William Henry Harrison. Harrison gave his inaugural address in the rain without a coat, and shortly after, he came down with pneumonia, which resulted in his death three months into his presidency.

Harrison’s vice president, John Tyler became president. When the Whigs chose Tyler as vice president, they didn’t choose him for his policies but rather because they thought he would give a southern vote.

The Age of Jackson tremendously changed politics. People now became more involve.