What is מסילת ישרים? R’ Sarna says on מסילת ישרים, "מה שלקט הרמב''ם במשנה תורה יד חזקה עשה הרמח''ל במסילת ישרים"- the רמב'ם took all of the הלכות and divided them amongst subject matter, so too the רמח''ל collected various thoughts in מוסר and divided them according to the ברייתא of ר' פנחס בן יאיר.
The פסוק says, "נעשה אדם בצלמינו כדמותינו". רש''י says that ה' consulted with the מלאכים. The שפת אמת says that He was talking to אדם- ה' can make you, but you won’t be perfected until you work on yourself. In order to be a mentsch, you must work together with ה' and be His partner. How do we do this? We need to accept ה' over ourselves. ר' יונה says that it’s easy to be ממליך ה' on the world, but it’s much harder to be ממליך ה' over ourselves. So how can we do this? The אריז''ל says that when you make a ברכה, you raise that thing from mundane to a דבר שבקדושה. But this only happens if you are מתבונן in the ברכה. Really, ה' wants us to be מורגל to do מצוות, however it shouldn’t be a מצות אנשים מלומדה. ר' שלמה וואלבה says that when you are מתבונן, it totally changes what you are doing. You are elevating it and it brings a light into the world, which chases away the darkness. One should think before he does anything and never do something without a reason.
תפילה is one such area where we must have התבוננות. The word להתפלל is התפעל- doing to yourself. Its שרש is פלל. We see this when יעקב told יוסף, "ראות פניך לא פללתי"- I didn’t think that I would see you again. We see פלל means to think or judge. We aren’t ordering ה', we’re inspiring ourselves about Him. This is what we do by פסוקי דזמרה- we thank ה' in order that we should make ourselves realize his greatness (this is why every תפילה has הודי' and שבח) - we are judging ourselves and making ourselves think internally. The ספר עקרים asks why do we daven to ה' if he made a גזירה anyway? Because through davening, you elevate yourself and you change yourself so you are a new person and therefore have a new גזירה. It was quoted by someone, “How do you know when your תפילה is answered? When you have changed.” תפילה is so difficult, but it is an opportunity for growth.
הקדת המחבר-
The רמח''ל lived a very difficult life and died at the age of forty. At a very young age, he began learning נסתר. At one point in his life, he wrote מסילת ישרים and something else. R’ Sarna says that it’s amazing that someone who had such a deep knowledge could write a מוסר ספר that speaks to everyone. This ספר is a classic מוסר ספר.
In his modesty, he said that he didn’t write this ספר because the people don’t know the concepts. He wrote it to remind people of the things we all know- just to make them away. Everyone knows these concepts, but since this knowledge is so widespread, it’s not actually found in concept. There is no point in learning this ספר once because there are no חדושים- the תועלת is in reviewing this ספר to have a constant reminder of how to live. We need this reminder because we don’t stop to think. If we would discern what is important and what is really unimportant, we would be happier people, more complete people and people who are always doing the right thing. Doing the right thing doesn’t take the שמחה out of your life. Often, we see people with צרעות in their lives who are perpetually happy because they are doing the right things and true שמחה comes from doing the right thing.
People with who have clear minds and are bright usually put their intelligence towards different חכמות- science, technology… Some are even putting their minds towards הלכה and מדרש. But very few people put their minds to the עבודה of becoming closer to ה'. Why? They do think that it’s important, but they don’t bother to learn it because they feel that it is so obvious and don’t realize that it requires intense studying. It ends up that only the people who are not so smart are left to learn מוסר. Because of this, people’s attitude toward learning מוסר is that if someone is learning מוסר, he must not be so smart. This is a terrible attitude, because this means that no one will know what it’s really about and it will cause people to have the wrong idea of what חסידות really is. People will have no clue what it entails because they have no experience with it and מלתא דלא רמיא עלה דאינש לאו אדעתה. No one has it in their nature this מדה of חסידות and to do the right thing. We won’t sense a need to implement it into ourselves; therefore we must work to implement it within ourselves. How? By learning מוסר. Everyone knows deep down within that we must perfect our עבודת ה'. What will we answer by the יום הדין if we were weak in our עבודת ה' and didn’t learn about it?
When we realize the truth to this, we’ll work on it and teach it to others. The פסוק says, "אם תבקשנה ככסף וכמטונים תחפשנה"- one must search for יראת ה' the same way he searches for money. Just like you put yourself all out to attain money and you must look for it and dig deep down for it, so to יראת ה'. Is it enough to satisfy ourselves with the חנוך that we get in our parents’ home? It won’t come by itself even then. We must set aside time to learn about יראת ה'. It says, "הן יראת ה' היא חכמה"- הן means אחת in Greek. The only true חכמה is יראת ה'. In order to acquire it though, you must concentrate and learn.
The פסוק in דברים tells us the five things that ה' asks of us:
1. יראה- you must have יראת הרוממות. You must fear ה' like one fears a king and therefore act with respect when you’re davening or learning.
2. הליכה בדרכיו- you should follow in ה'’s footsteps and try to emulate His מדות. The תורה starts with ה' dressing אדם to show us His מדות. Everything that you do should be תפארת לעושי' ותפארת לו מן האדם- must result in חזוק התורה and affecting the community.
3. האהבה- you should show Him love like you show love to your parents to the point that you want to do His will and it pains you if you or someone else fails to do so.
4. שלמות הלב- your עבודה should not have any ulterior motives. You should only serve ה' because you have a sincere desire to do so. Also, your עבודה should be complete and not like פוסח על שתי הסעיפים- straddling on two sides of the fence. Included in this is doing a מצות אנשים מלומדה.
5. שמירת המצוות- keep all the מצוות according to all their פרטים and details.
In order to attain these five things, you need the proper מדות, as it is said by ר' פנחס בן יאיר that תורה brings to זהירות → זריזות →נקיות → פרישות →טהרה →חסידות →ענוה →יראת החטא →קדושה →רוח הקודש → תחית המתים. This ספר is based on this. The רמח''ל says, "ללמד לעצמי ולהזכיר לאחירים"- this shows his ענוה.
Each of these מדות has three פרקים:
1. Defining it.
2. Acquiring it.
3. Guarding ones self against being מפסיד it.
By learning this ספר, you’ll learn to be a יראי שמים and you won’t forget your חובה to ה'. You’ll try to remove the חמריות for yourself and we’ll be מקיים what דוד המלך said, "הוריני ה' דרכיך אהלך באמתך יחד לבבי ליראה שמך".
באור חובת האדם בעולמו-
The foundation of חסידות and the root of perfect עבודה is that one should clarify what is his חובה in this world. It says "בעולמו"- in his world. Each person has his own world because everyone has different תפקידים, different כוחות and a different situation. It’s the most important thing to know and develop.
Once you have the foundation, you can build around its parameters. Once you have a יסוד of חסידות, you can spend your life building on this foundation. Once you know your חובה, you can keep on growing and building your character higher and greater. Everyone has different things that fit on his building- so whatever חסידות is conducive to your growing, take it in. Your foundation has been built by your חנוך, but it’s up to you to acquire חסידות.
The שרש is the root- the נשמה given to you. In order to keep your root alive, you must keep on nourishing it with your עבודה. Our עבודת ה' is constantly refined as we nourish these roots. You already have it, but you need to work to improve it. How do you build on the יסוד and שרש? A person must clarify and verify for himself what his חובה is in this world. Each person has his own worlds- every person was born with different qualities and he must see in what he should put his outlook and goal with everything that he does. Everything you do should be with reason- don’t do anything without a reason. Sometimes, you do something which you think is so insignificant but you don’t realize what a difference it makes. Ex. If אהרן would have known that the תורה would mention "וראך ושמח בלבו", he would have come out to meet משה with תופים ומחולות. For everything you do, no matter how small it seems, you must know the positive reasoning for it and fit into the goal of life. Even if you think that it is not so major, it could make such a difference. Life has to be meaningful and we must constantly be growing.
We were created only to be מתענג by being close to ה' and to get עדון from the זיו השכינה in עוה''ב, which has been prepared for this purpose. But we can only get there if we prepare for it here, in עוה''ז- this is the only place where you can accumulate זכותים. עוה''ז is like the hallway that is leading you to the ballroom- עוה''ב. But even in עוה''ז, the more you allow yourself to get close to ה', the happier you will be. Even though you are not yet in עוה''ב, you will feel the closeness to ה'. But in עוה''ב, you will really be נהנה from the זיו השכינה.
Proof that this is the way the world runs:
1. "קרבת אלקים לי טוב"- the only thing that’ll be for me good is קרבת ה'.
2. "אחת שאלתי... שבתי בבית ה'"- I ask only for one thing- to have קרבת ה', everything else is הבל. How can you attain this? By doing מצוות.
However much we try to be good, that how close to ה' we will get. The more you give in to your תאוות, the more you are distancing yourself from ה'. Everything in life is a נסיון. All around you are תאוות. If you win over them, you will be an אדם שלם and you’ll be זוכה to enter the טרקלין, maybe even in this world.
Everything in this world was created for our sake. If we do good, we raise the balance of the world. If we do bad, we ruin ourselves and the world. So, the world is benefitted by צדיקים. That’s why ה' made such a thing as a light for צדיקים, which enhances the entire world. By the story of the rocks under יעקב’s head- each one wanted to be under his head because he would enhance it. When ה' created the world, he showed it to אדם, but told him not to ruin it. Our עבירות ruin it.
We see that the point of our existence is what will be in עוה''ב and not what is in עוה''ז:
1. "העולם הזה דומה לפרוזדור"
2. "היום לעשותם ומחר לקבל שכרם"
3. "מי שטרח בערב שבת אוכל בשבת"
4. "העוה''ז דומה ליבשה והעוה''ב דומה לים"– because you need to get together your equipment for your journey, otherwise it is too late.
A single בעל שכל can not think that the purpose for our creation is עוה''ז because we see that our lives here are so short and so מלא צרה, so obviously עוה''ז is not the goal. Additionally, why would you have a נשמה if you תכלית is עוה''ז- your נשמה doesn’t appreciate עוה''ז, so why bring it here? Because the תכלית is עוה''ב. משל- עירוני who married a princess. נמשל- our נשמה hates being in this world.
דברי תורה-
ר''ה and יו''כ:
• Why do we say "שמע קולנו", and not "שמע תפילותינו"? We have the idea of קול. We see this same idea by the שופר- have the קול שופר. A שופר is so powerful because it is a crying voice that we want to connect to ה'. So too in our תפילות- the calling out to ה' is what is really important.
• Rabbi Yaakov Reisman- on ר''ה, we are ממליך ה' over ourselves. When we forge the הוספה of "המלך הקדוש" we must go back and not by any of the other הוספות. Why? Because the most important thing is המכלת ה'.
• The עבודה of יו''כ has in it the שני השאירים- two identical goats that stand at the פתח to the אהל מועד. Early in the day, the כהן does a raffle on them. One gets לה' חטאת. This goat is שחטed and its blood is sprinkled in front of the פרוכת seven times and then the כהן sprinkles the blood towards the ארון and on the posts of the מזבח הזהב to be מכפר. Next, the כהן goes out to the other goat, puts his hands on its head and admits all of ב''י’s חטאים that were בשוגג and throws it down a cliff. ר' שמשון רפאל הירש explains that because he is outside of the בהמ''ק, he has חטאים upon him that he is responsible for and although it was בשוגג, he is held accountable because you have to go into the בהמ''ק, where you become closer to ה'. Before the גורל, these two goats were identical, but one rose so high and one didn’t. This must be applied to our lives- if we commit ourselves, we can go until לפני ולפנים.
פרשת בראשית:
• The earth was created, but grass didn’t grow "כי אדם אין לעבוד את האדמה". רש''י says there was no one to daven for it to grow. Without תפילה, nothing would be here for man.
• ר' שמשון רפאל הירש- we have the מצוה of פרו ורבו. This לשון seems to be redundant, but it’s not. פרו- to have children. ורבו- it’s מל' רובה קשת- to direct them at a goal. It is not enough just to have children, you must raise them and teach them the right ways.
• When אדם and חוה were חוטא, they got an עונש. The purpose of punishment is not to hurt you, it’s to make you a better person. חוה’s punishment was "הרבה ארבה עצבונך והרונך" and אדם got the punishment of "בזעת אפיך תאכל לחם בעצבון תאכלנה". ר' שמשון רפאל הירש says that בעצבון (with pain) can be translated as בעזבון- forgo. You can only have פרנסה if you forgo your desires, for example you must get up in the morning even though you may be tired. This was מכ''מ to their חטא because their חטא was giving in to their desires and now he must forgo it. Women must have עזבון all the time- they forgo their needs for their children’s needs. This makes us closer to גן עדן than men.
סוכות:
• The קריאת התורה for סוכות mentions "ושמחת" three times. This applies only to סוכות. Why?
1. גשמיות- the harvest is in.
2. רוחניות- we got a כפרה, therefore we are on a high.
פרשת נח:
• נח was told to build a תיבה and was told, "צוהר תעשה לתיבה". A צוהר is either a window or a gem that gives off light. The בעש''ט and שפת אמת teach that תיבה means a word also. So "צוהר תעשה לתיבה"- make the words you say have a light and enlighten you. This is referring to your תפילות- they should lighten up your day.
פרשת לך לך:
• After the מבול, people still reverted back to their old ways. Decency started really with the אבות only. א''א married שרה- was called יסכה:
1. שכסה ברוח הקודש- she was overflowing with רוח הקודש.
2. שהכל סוכין ביפי'- everyone was impressed with her beauty.
When she was seven, she realized that her dazzling beauty was not something to walk around with and it should be covered up. She covered herself with royalty and majesty (שרי- מל' שר) in a way that people won’t know of her beauty. This was the case, except for מצרים because they were so immoral. The וולנא גאון says that a woman working on צניעות is equal to a man who’s learning and working on his התמדה- they are both an עבודה.
• "הנה באהל"- this shows her צניעות and she set the precedent for woman being in the tent, especially when guests come. עמון and מואב are not allowed to marry a Jew because they didn’t give to ב''י in their time of need. But the עמוני and מואבי women were in their tents, so they are not included in this גזירה- from them we have רות.
פרשת וירא:
• The source for צניעות is"הצנע לכת עם אלוקיך" and "אל הצנועים חכמה". רש''י quotes תרגום for הצנע לכת, which explains it as having יראת ה'. The פסוק in מיכה talks about three things that ה' wants from you:
1. עשות משפט
2. אהבת חסד
3. הצנע לכת
מיכה encapsulates all מצוות into these three things. דוד encapsulates it all into פרק טו in תהלים- עשות משפט and אהבת חסד represent באל''ח and באל''מ. הצנע לכת represents doing what ה' wants of you. צניעות applies to all different aspects of your life. When we don’t act with צניעות, we are מכשיל men. If we would treasure the femininity that we have, we wouldn’t want to use it in the wrong way. The more precious something is, the more we cover it up.
פרשת חיי שרה:
• When יצחק brought רבקה into his mother’s tent, everything returned like it was by שרה and he was comforted:
1. ברכה בעיסה
2. נרות דולקות
3. ענן
רמב''ן- In the בהמ''ק, there were also these three things- ה' copied it and put it into the :
בהמ''ק:
1. נרות- symbolizes the learning of תורה. By licht benching, we daven for our children’s תורה. We must see that everything in our house is על פי תורה.
2. עיסה- symbolizes the שלחן in the בהמ''ק, which symbolizes our גשמיות, פרנסה and money. It all must be על פי תורה- whatever we do with גשמיות must be with the correct standard. You don’t just have to use your money for חסד and צדקה. You are supposed to use it for גשמיות, but you must use it correctly.
3. שכינה- we re responsible for the קדושה and טהורה in our homes. We must be careful with what comes into our homes and what goes on inside of our houses.
• When רבקה saw יצחק, "ותסכס"- she was covered. Meaning, she was covered because it was such an automatic response when she covered herself that she just found herself covered.
Friday, November 5, 2010
Wednesday, October 6, 2010
Chemistry Quiz- 1
Sorry the pictures are missing...
Chemistry is the study of matter.
Matter is anything that:
1. Takes up space- volume.
2. Has weight- mass.
There are different forms of matter. Everything in this world is made up of matter. The smallest ingredient of matter is an atom. Elements are different types of atoms. There are 103 different types of elements. Different combinations of elements make up the many different things in this world.
Compound- group of two or more atoms put together. The atoms stay bound as a compound forever. Only a chemical reaction can break them apart. Elements, however, never change no matter what you do to them.
Examples of chemical reactions:
1. If you burn a piece of wood-
2. Piece of toast- the toaster burns the outside of the bread and it detaches. The burnt part is made up of carbon.
3. If someone would eat sugar and then be active, the sugar would come out when the person breathes as carbon and water.
A mixture is when to different things are physically touching each other. There are two different types of mixtures:
1. Heterogeneous- not a perfect mixture. Example: salt and sand.
2. Homogeneous- a perfect mixture, where everything gets evenly distributed. The only way to achieve such a mixture is with water- aqueous mixture.
The only way to make a mixture is by physically putting it together. Physical separation is the only way to separate a mixture.
1. Salt and sand- sift.
2. Mix of different vegetables- by hand.
3. Water and salt- evaporate the water. The changing of phases is a physical change because the compound doesn’t change.
Energy- the ability to do work.
There are many different forms of energy:
1. Kinetic energy- how fast something is moving. This is based solely on temperature- the greater the temperature, the more kinetic energy.
2. Solar energy- from the sun.
3. Potential energy- anything with energy stored in it. Example: sugar, batteries…
4. Nuclear energy
5. Electric energy
6. Heat energy
7. Hydro energy
8. Light energy
9. Chemical bond energy
Law of conservation of energy- energy is never created and energy is never lost. Energy is transferred.
There are two types of reactions:
1. Absorbs or needs energy to work.
2. Gives off energy.
Endothermic reaction- takes in heat in order to work.
Example: as ice cubes are absorbing heat,
and therefore melting, an endothermic
reaction is taking place.
Exothermic reaction- releases heat.
Example: When placed in a freezer,
a cup of warm water gets colder and
colder because the heat is released.
When an endothermic reaction takes place, an exothermic reaction occurs, too.
Example: an endothermic reaction
is occurring to the ice cube and the
an exothermic reaction is occurring
to the water.
Endothermic reaction: A+B+ heat→ C, H2O(s) +heat→ H2O (l)
Exothermic reaction: X+Y→ Z+ heat, H2O (l) → H2O(s) +heat
Hint: By an endothermic reaction, when heat is absorbed in, you write “heat” inside the arrow. By an exothermic reaction, when heat is released out, you write “heat” outside of the arrow.
A thermometer is used to measure heat. The scale used is that of degrees.
Example: if a thermometer would be put into
a freezer, the thermometer would be the
hotter object. As heat is released from it, the
mercury begins to move slower and slower and
it takes up less room. If the thermometer would
be the colder object, it would absorb heat and the
mercury would take up more and more space.
They wanted that the thermometer should be the same for everyone, so they marked freezing point and boiling point. Freezing point is 0°C and 32°F. Boiling point is 100°C and 212°F.
Kelvin Scale- felt that 0° isn’t a low number. Negative numbers are much lower. But having so many negative numbers isn’t good as it complicates things. Absolute zero is a point on the Kelvin scale where theoretically, gas takes up no volume. This point is at 273°C. This is only theoretical because when it really gets that cold, gas changes phases. On the Kelvin scale, Absolute zero is 0°. Freezing point is 273° and boiling point is 373°.
The degrees in Celsius and Kelvin both move at the same interval.
Calorimeter- an enclosed container which measures how many calories are absorbed or released by a chemical reaction.
Example: the water measures 25°C. A reaction
vessel is inserted into the water. After the
reaction occurs, the thermometer measures
19°C. The reactive vessel was absorbing heat
and an endothermic reaction occurred.
A calorie is a measurement of how much energy we get from something. One calorie is how much energy is needed to raised one gram of water by 1°C.
Calorie= grams of water x change in temperature.
100 grams, 50°→ 60° 10 X 100= 1000 calories.
200 grams, 30°→ 25° 5 X 200= 1000 calories are absorbed.
1 calorie= 4.18 (4.2) joules.
J= grams of water x change in temperature x 4.2, J= mass x ΔH x 4.2
Heating curve- shows how a substance changes phases.
Water at -50° is at a sub zero level and is freezing. It begins to heat up and it gets warmer and warmer. It is absorbing energy. At 0°, the molecules can start separating and they are at the right temperature to break apart and melt. However, there is an attraction holding these molecules together and before they can separate, the force has to be broken. It breaks by the absorption of energy. The water keeps absorbing and absorbing (but it is not getting warmer), and then the molecules break apart and the water begins to melt. Once it hits a liquid form, it gets warmer and warmer until it hits 100°. When the water hits 100°, the water is hot enough to start turning into a gas, but the attractive force doesn’t let. (Water never gets hotter than 100°.) It absorbs energy to break the attractive force and when enough energy is absorbed, it changes phases. This phase change from a liquid to a gas is called vaporization. The actual pot of water is at 100° and all the energy is causing water to jump out of the pot. Once the gas is out of the pot, with a source underneath it, the temperature can rise.
How much energy is needed to cause something to melt? 334 J/g. Melting is known as fusion. The heat of fusion is 334 J/g. The heat of vaporization is 2260 J/g.
Cooling curve-
At 100°, gas begins to condense. It has too much energy though, and has to loose the extra energy that it gained. It has to lose 2260 J/g. When all the energy is released, it is a liquid. The water gets colder until it hits 0°- freezing point. The water loses 334 J/g and only then it can freeze.
Sublimation- when a substance goes from a solid directly to a gas and skips the liquid phase. Why does this happen? Because the substance is forced into the solid form. As soon as it is released, it goes back to a gas. Examples:
1. Dry ice- CO2(s)- when carbon dioxide is frozen so cold and put under tremendous pressure, the molecules slow down and go together and it becomes a solid.
2. Iodine crystal- I2(s)
Chemistry is the study of matter.
Matter is anything that:
1. Takes up space- volume.
2. Has weight- mass.
There are different forms of matter. Everything in this world is made up of matter. The smallest ingredient of matter is an atom. Elements are different types of atoms. There are 103 different types of elements. Different combinations of elements make up the many different things in this world.
Compound- group of two or more atoms put together. The atoms stay bound as a compound forever. Only a chemical reaction can break them apart. Elements, however, never change no matter what you do to them.
Examples of chemical reactions:
1. If you burn a piece of wood-
2. Piece of toast- the toaster burns the outside of the bread and it detaches. The burnt part is made up of carbon.
3. If someone would eat sugar and then be active, the sugar would come out when the person breathes as carbon and water.
A mixture is when to different things are physically touching each other. There are two different types of mixtures:
1. Heterogeneous- not a perfect mixture. Example: salt and sand.
2. Homogeneous- a perfect mixture, where everything gets evenly distributed. The only way to achieve such a mixture is with water- aqueous mixture.
The only way to make a mixture is by physically putting it together. Physical separation is the only way to separate a mixture.
1. Salt and sand- sift.
2. Mix of different vegetables- by hand.
3. Water and salt- evaporate the water. The changing of phases is a physical change because the compound doesn’t change.
Energy- the ability to do work.
There are many different forms of energy:
1. Kinetic energy- how fast something is moving. This is based solely on temperature- the greater the temperature, the more kinetic energy.
2. Solar energy- from the sun.
3. Potential energy- anything with energy stored in it. Example: sugar, batteries…
4. Nuclear energy
5. Electric energy
6. Heat energy
7. Hydro energy
8. Light energy
9. Chemical bond energy
Law of conservation of energy- energy is never created and energy is never lost. Energy is transferred.
There are two types of reactions:
1. Absorbs or needs energy to work.
2. Gives off energy.
Endothermic reaction- takes in heat in order to work.
Example: as ice cubes are absorbing heat,
and therefore melting, an endothermic
reaction is taking place.
Exothermic reaction- releases heat.
Example: When placed in a freezer,
a cup of warm water gets colder and
colder because the heat is released.
When an endothermic reaction takes place, an exothermic reaction occurs, too.
Example: an endothermic reaction
is occurring to the ice cube and the
an exothermic reaction is occurring
to the water.
Endothermic reaction: A+B+ heat→ C, H2O(s) +heat→ H2O (l)
Exothermic reaction: X+Y→ Z+ heat, H2O (l) → H2O(s) +heat
Hint: By an endothermic reaction, when heat is absorbed in, you write “heat” inside the arrow. By an exothermic reaction, when heat is released out, you write “heat” outside of the arrow.
A thermometer is used to measure heat. The scale used is that of degrees.
Example: if a thermometer would be put into
a freezer, the thermometer would be the
hotter object. As heat is released from it, the
mercury begins to move slower and slower and
it takes up less room. If the thermometer would
be the colder object, it would absorb heat and the
mercury would take up more and more space.
They wanted that the thermometer should be the same for everyone, so they marked freezing point and boiling point. Freezing point is 0°C and 32°F. Boiling point is 100°C and 212°F.
Kelvin Scale- felt that 0° isn’t a low number. Negative numbers are much lower. But having so many negative numbers isn’t good as it complicates things. Absolute zero is a point on the Kelvin scale where theoretically, gas takes up no volume. This point is at 273°C. This is only theoretical because when it really gets that cold, gas changes phases. On the Kelvin scale, Absolute zero is 0°. Freezing point is 273° and boiling point is 373°.
The degrees in Celsius and Kelvin both move at the same interval.
Calorimeter- an enclosed container which measures how many calories are absorbed or released by a chemical reaction.
Example: the water measures 25°C. A reaction
vessel is inserted into the water. After the
reaction occurs, the thermometer measures
19°C. The reactive vessel was absorbing heat
and an endothermic reaction occurred.
A calorie is a measurement of how much energy we get from something. One calorie is how much energy is needed to raised one gram of water by 1°C.
Calorie= grams of water x change in temperature.
100 grams, 50°→ 60° 10 X 100= 1000 calories.
200 grams, 30°→ 25° 5 X 200= 1000 calories are absorbed.
1 calorie= 4.18 (4.2) joules.
J= grams of water x change in temperature x 4.2, J= mass x ΔH x 4.2
Heating curve- shows how a substance changes phases.
Water at -50° is at a sub zero level and is freezing. It begins to heat up and it gets warmer and warmer. It is absorbing energy. At 0°, the molecules can start separating and they are at the right temperature to break apart and melt. However, there is an attraction holding these molecules together and before they can separate, the force has to be broken. It breaks by the absorption of energy. The water keeps absorbing and absorbing (but it is not getting warmer), and then the molecules break apart and the water begins to melt. Once it hits a liquid form, it gets warmer and warmer until it hits 100°. When the water hits 100°, the water is hot enough to start turning into a gas, but the attractive force doesn’t let. (Water never gets hotter than 100°.) It absorbs energy to break the attractive force and when enough energy is absorbed, it changes phases. This phase change from a liquid to a gas is called vaporization. The actual pot of water is at 100° and all the energy is causing water to jump out of the pot. Once the gas is out of the pot, with a source underneath it, the temperature can rise.
How much energy is needed to cause something to melt? 334 J/g. Melting is known as fusion. The heat of fusion is 334 J/g. The heat of vaporization is 2260 J/g.
Cooling curve-
At 100°, gas begins to condense. It has too much energy though, and has to loose the extra energy that it gained. It has to lose 2260 J/g. When all the energy is released, it is a liquid. The water gets colder until it hits 0°- freezing point. The water loses 334 J/g and only then it can freeze.
Sublimation- when a substance goes from a solid directly to a gas and skips the liquid phase. Why does this happen? Because the substance is forced into the solid form. As soon as it is released, it goes back to a gas. Examples:
1. Dry ice- CO2(s)- when carbon dioxide is frozen so cold and put under tremendous pressure, the molecules slow down and go together and it becomes a solid.
2. Iodine crystal- I2(s)
Tuesday, June 8, 2010
Dinim notes - Bishul... Deena Goldberg
Bishul
1) The basic premise of the melocha
2) The din of אש and תולדות אש
3) The rule if אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש
4) The גזירת חכמים with regard to bishul
מחלוקת: is the אב מלאכה baking(אופה) or cooking(bishul)? This melocha is the last of the סידורא דפת so you’d thing that it should be אופה because the bread got baked. However, most rishonim hold that סידורא דפת is symbolic and baking was not a אב מלאכה {because some say that the מלאכת המשכן are the preparatory melachos and not the function melachos.} {And they cooked the dyes for the יריעות}
Bishul: causing a change in a food or substance by the use of heat.
The first 3 parts of the melocha apply to these words.
1) Basic Premise--causing a change in a substance with heat (soft to hard/hard to soft).
a. צלי- roasting
b. בישול- cooking
c. אופה- baking
d. טיגון- frying
Bishul is in a liquid- the change takes place in the substance while it’s in a hot liquid
צלי is without liquid- dry heat
אופה- is without liquid- dry heat
(צלי makes the hard to soft with a flame but אופה makes the soft too hard with a flame). טיגון is frying or sautéing with a small amount of oil (deep frying is considered אופה).
But what is causation in this case? What does it mean to cause a change?
Even making an indirect change (ex. I put a pot on the flame but I didn’t make it hot it was the flame that did it-still it’s indirectly my fault). The main changes that occur in food or drinks: inedible to edible.
So if a food in its raw state is edible is doing bishul on it אסור? (Ex. baked apple)
There is no אסור דאורייתא. However, bishul is applicable to food and non food alike. For ex. if you put a blech on the fire it’s usually ok unless a physical change will occur to it (change colors). Heat has to be hot enough to cause change. Not all heats cause bishul (solar heat). דאורייתא you’re allowed to boil your water with solar heat. But most types of solar heat are אסור דאורייתא.
Shiur bishul- the change is from inedible to edible
When does the change occur? Chazal say that the minimum for food is מאכל בן דרוסאי-the food of a refugee. The amount of time someone would wait if they were on the run or had no time. It’s a machlokes whether this is ½ or 1/3 of bishul. For liquid its יד סולדת when it reaches 110 F. The higher shiur is 160-170. Why is this bishul if the drink was already edible? Because heat is an important factor to people when it comes to liquids (you spill out cold coffee). Boiling isn’t the change here because it changes from liquid to gas. So it doesn’t really apply here.
All melachos have an act however bishul doesn’t because you don’t actually do you cause it. Why is it a problem? The act you did of contacting a substance with heat is the melacha. The rest which happens on its own is caused because of that. So therefore it can happen many times to a substance because you keep contacting it with heat.
There are methods of kiruv bishul- causing bishul to accelerate (although it would cook anyway)
• Moving food closer to heat-קירוב על האש
• Covering a pot while it’s on the flame-לכסות הקדרה
• Stirring-מגיס (because it causes it to cook more even- top gets hot)
• Removing some of the substance so that the remaining part will cook faster- פינוי התבשיל
Therefore make sure the food is cooked before shabbos so if you do any of the above you won’t be עובר on bishul. For the water in an urn to be considered cooked, use the higher shiur of יד סולדת.
2) אש and תולדות אש-a substance that gives off heat without its original source
There are different types of heat. For ex. you can either scramble an egg on a flame (active heat) or you can scramble it on a preheated pan (absorbed heat).
Sometimes you don’t even realize that the food got cooked because only the outer layer got affected.
There are about 6-7 levels of absorbed heat. It can even be done with hot foods. For ex., you pour hot gravy on an onion so it gets cooked.
There are 6 levels (plus another possible one).
• כלי ראשון
• עירוי
• כלי שני
• כלי שלישי
• כף
• דבר גוש
The כלי ראשון is the pot-the container cooked on the flame. If it’s on the flame, its כלי ראשון על האש. If it isn’t on the flame it’s called כלי ראשון שהותר מן האש. Almost anytime you put something into the pot it will cook so it’s אסור to put food in.
The כלי שני is the container you transfer the food into. If it was poured in it’s considered a complete כלי שני, if it was ladled in it’s a שאלה whether it’s considered a complete כלי שני.
The halachos of bishul don’t go according to physics (ex. יד סולדת isn’t the same as boiling pt.).
יד סולדת can be achieved by a direct or indirect heat. It’s like putting a food on an electric rod that had just had electricity running through. Or like putting a hot food onto a cold food so that the cold food will get cooked. Not all heat is the same. Although תולדות אש can cause bishul, not all types of it will. However אש always causes bishul.
When you cook with solar heat it’s not אסור דאורייתא however its אסור דרבנן (to make it look like bishul)because it looks like bishul. There is solar heat and secondary solar heat. Secondary solar heat is אסור because it will look like תולדות אש. For ex., you’ll see someone frying an egg on a preheated pan and you’ll think he heated it on a fire. But if you see someone cooking directly by using solar heat you won’t confuse it with anything else.
כלי ראשון
While it’s on the fire is considered אש. When it’s not on the fire it’s considered תולדות אש. Anything that you’ll put into it will get cooked with one exception בשרא דתורא- ox meat- because it’s so tough- so that needs to be directly on the flame and not on תולדות אש. Let’s say you poured water the pot that’s not on the flame to cool it down its bishul because you cooked the water.
כלי שני
It’s the container that you pour the contents of the pot into. If some of the food you put into it will get cooked it’s a כלי שני. קלי הבישול are foods that will get cooked in a כלי שני. חומר הבישול wont (they’re resistant to heat) however we don’t really know what’s the חומרי הבישול so we treat most foods as if they’re קלי הבישול.
Foods that we know are חומרי הבישול: water (so you can put an ice cube into hot foods), olive oil, fresh cinnamon sticks, fresh ginger and ox meat. But once any of these things are ground up and flaky they become קלי הבישול. Anything that is flaky and thin is considered קלי הבישול. Mined salt is a שאלה, but regular table salt (coarse salt not included) is fine because it has been processed and has undergone some heat. So you can put it into a כלי שני.
ערוי
It’s a hot stream of liquid being poured into something. It gets cooled somewhat by the air so therefore it only causes bishul on the outer layer- קליפה. Therefore you can pour hot water on a baby bottle because it only cooks the outside of the bottle and the drink inside is unaffected. As a general rule if you cannot pour something into a כלי ראשון you may not do עירוי with it.
כף
It’s a serving spoon or ladle. Some say that it’s counted as a כלי on its own and it will make the next one be a כלי שני as opposed to a כלי ראשון or a כלי שלישי as opposed to a כלי שני.
There are 3 levels
1- חומרי הבישול
2- Semi חומרי הבישול
3- קלי הבישול
There is a kind of fish called קולית הספנין that if you put this into a כלי שני it will get cooked. It’s one of the קלי הבישול. You’re not allowed to put tea bags into a כלי שני because its קלי הבישול. Poskim aren’t sure about כף, some say you can use it as a כלי ראשון but others say it’s not because it never cooked over the flame, so it must be a כלי שני. But some say if you put it into the soup it assumes the level of the soup. So then it’s still a כלי ראשון. So the next bowl is either a כלי שני or a כלי שלישי. Which one is it? It makes a big difference whether the bowl is a כלי שני or a כלי שלישי because you cannot put קלי הבישול into a כלי שני. So the Mishnah Berurah says that since we don’t know, we should be machmir and consider it to be a כלי שני (so don’t put in any קלי הבישול). However you may put in one of the קלי הבישול that’s already been cooked or baked because אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש. אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש is a ספק so don’t use it when bowl is surely a כלי שני but when it’s a ספק כלי שני or a כלי שלישי you can rely on it. So you may put matzah/ croutons etc. in soup but not spices because it’s fresh. (Croutons are deep fried which is the same as bishul so its fine. Matzah is done with אפייה and not bishul so you can’t say אין בישול אחר בישול because maybe יש בישול אחר אפייה so it’s different than croutons. So why is it permissible? Because בישול אחר אפייה is a ספק and so is כף. So if you ladle it out it’s not for sure a כלי שני so it’s ok.)
However, do not keep ladle sitting in soup, but keep it out and only dip it into the bowl when necessary.
דבר גוש
It’s when the food is thick (for ex., cholent, mashed potatoes). That always has the din of a כלי ראשון. So whatever number כלי it is in, it’s not allowed to have another food put into it. Then if you spoon it out onto a plate, it’s a ספק whether it’s a כלי שני or a כלי ראשון. So only put in חומרי הבישול.
Liquids that have been cooked but cooled down are a problem to reheat. But you usually can be מיקל.
Some poskim say that a דבר גוש always gives its container the din of a כלי ראשון. We are machmir to hold this way. (When the דבר גוש is in a liquid it doesn’t always have the din of a כלי ראשון) You can put salt in because it’s a ספק and a דבר גוש is also a ספק so there’s room to מיקל. But some are still machmir not to. Other than that לכתחילה you should only put in cooked foods or drinks. You cannot put in raw food or drinks. Let’s say you have cholent on a plate next to coleslaw- it’s a problem if they touch because the דבר גוש might cook the coleslaw. It’s questionable-don’t do it! Can you put ketchup onto hot chicken even though ketchup is cooked? Maybe you’d think no because it’s not a דבר גוש. R’ Moshe Feinstein said its ok. (Explained below)
3) בישול אחר בישול
We have a כלל of אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש. That means that you can put a cooked food even into a כלי ראשון because bishul won’t happen again. But it must be a כלי ראשון שהותר מן האש (can’t be on the fire).
But there are 2 conditions
a) The food must be a דבר יבש not a דבר לח.
b) It must be the same type of bishul previously done to the food (for ex. Fried chicken can be refried but not baked).
Making a tea
Teabags are קלי הבישול (make sure they’re kosher). If you pour water directly from the urn and then put the teabag into it its bishul (because its עירוי כלי ראשון). If you pour water from a כלי ראשון and then put the teabag into it its אסור (because you can’t be סומך on עירוי כלי ראשון). But you can put the teabag into a כלי שלישי. It’s good to make tea cense before Shabbos, kept warm and on Shabbos put it into a cup of hot כלי שני water (tea cense- soak tea bags in warm water). Why can’t you pour water into soaked tea bags? Because then you’ll be doing עירוי and the tea bag itself will get cooked but not the contents.
You can reheat a דבר לח that is warm but not if it’s not longer warm enough that someone wouldn’t eat it. So if you have a bowl of soup that has been cooled down, if it didn’t yet reach the level that it wouldn’t taste good enough to eat it you can reheat it.
If you have a glass that is still drying off and now you want to pour in a hot liquid you should dry it off first. That’s if it’s an accumulation of liquid in it. But if there are just residual droplets its fine even if it’s cold.
4) גזירת חכמים
There are 4 גזירות
i. שהי-יה- the requirement of putting a blech on a stovetop. שהי-יה means to remain- nothing happening. Even though מן התורה you could start cooking (causing change) sometime right before shabbos, the chachomim made this אור
ii. חזרה- the prohibition of putting something on the blech or back on the blech. Even if you put something into a pot that had food and then returned the pot to the blech, that’s חזרה to the new food you put in even if it’s not חזרה to the pot itself because you fulfilled the certain conditions: עודה בידו, and having in mind to put back the pot onto the blech. Its חזרה because you added something new.
iii. הטמנה- insulating a hot food before shabbos while its still on its source of heat. This is הטמנה בדבר שמוסיף הבל. Its מותר if its הטמנה בדבר שאינו מוסיף הבל and it’s before shabbos.
iv. רחיצה- you cannot shower on shabbos or yom tov.
שהי-יה
You must cover the stove with a blech. You cannot leave a pot of raw food to remain of an open flame (if you put it on night before shabbos). So put a blech- this allows a pot of food to be put on a flame because now the flame is covered. Not every covering can do the job. If it’s not properly covered it does not fill the conditions of גרופה קטומה. So you can’t use such a blech. But if the blech is גרופה קטומה its fine. But you should know that although it’s not אסור to put a pot of raw food on the blech right before shabbos it’s not recommended because maybe you’ll do חזרה of kiruv bishul.
An oven has a flame but you can’t see it so you might think its fine. But it’s not because you can’t see it rather it’s not גרופה קטומה because if you look hard enough you’ll see it. Why do flames need to be covered? 1~because the chachamim were afraid שמא יחטה בגחלים- maybe he’ll fan the flames of the coals. So if you hide it you won’t fan the flames. This is גרופה. 2~ because we want a היכר that it’s not allowed so we cover it. This is קטומה.
We pasken that just the flames must be covered but there are those that say also knobs have to be covered- so blechs have a front.
שהי-יה doesn’t technically apply if food is completely cooked (at least מאכל בן דרוסאי). But still you should user a blech because it otherwise looks like a זלזול because everybody does it.
If you have a blech you may take food that’s raw and put it on the blech right before shabbos.
An oven isn’t considered covered so its not גרופה קטומה. Even though the flame isn’t very visible it’s a problem because the דרך העולם is to cook on there. So if its not at least 1/3 cooked before shabbos you can’t put food in there. לכתחילה 1* you’re food should be at least מאכל בן דרוסאי 2* you should cover you’re flame with a blech.
חזרה
You cannot return food the flame even if theres a blech and even if its not bishul (its already been cooked). So you can use a הפסק קדירה- put it on top of a pot (some people use an upside down plate on the blech but not everybody agrees because they say that it needs to have food in it). Why? So it won’t look like bishul. Therefore if you want to take it off how can do a kosher חזרה?
When you take it off and put it back on it must be fully cooked
When you take it off you must have in mind to put it back (be חוזר)- דעתו להחזיר
The whole time that it’s off the flame you need to be holding it or grasping it even if it’s down on the counter.
When you put it back it needs to be warm
When you put it back you must put it on a blech – you cannot put it back into the oven
So a crock pot needs a קטומה in order to do חזרה with it. Some say that its considered as though it already has a kosher covering but it’s advisable to make a blech for it by putting in aluminum foil. Also crock pots don’t have a problem with שהי-יה if it’s completely cooked or at least 1/3 cooked before shabbos.
R’ Moshe: blechs have 3 areas
אש- where the fire is
יד סולדת- area close enough around the fire that is ד סולדת
צינו- beyond that (not as hot)
You may move the pot back and forth between אש and יד סולדת without any conditions. But if you want to move between אש and צינו (it’s like a regular countertop) so you need the conditions when you dish out cholent don’t do it over אש because its מגיס.
הטמנה
הטמנה is a גזירת חכמים of bishul. It means להטמין – to hide – insulating a hot food by covering it. Why was the גזירה made? For the times of the gemara but we keep them. After they cooked food they either put it in sand or wool material or coals so they made this אסורbecause they might fan the flames.
There are 2 types
a. הטמנה בדבר המעמיד הבל- maintains heat
b. הטמנה כדבר המוסיף הבל- adds heat
An ex. of this is wrapping a pot in a blanket. Some of these keep in heat but some generate heat. For ex. sand is מעמיד הבל and salt is מוסיף הבל.
If before shabbos you wrap a pot in a regular blanket and you shut the flame = מעמיד. If you do the same but the blanket is electric = מוסיף. Both מעמיד and מוסיף are אסור on shabbos. But before shabbos מעמיד is מותר.
If you have pots on a blech over a flame you cannot wrap it while it’s on the blech because even though the blanket is not an active source of heat there is a source of heat underneath so it’s as if the blanket is causing it heat.
There are 4 rules of הטמנה
I. כלו – must be completely covered. So if you leave a substantial amount uncovered its not הטמנה
II. Its only with כלי ראשון – so you may put hot water into a כלי שני
III. כונה – its only when you intend to do הטמנה. So if you cover the pot only to keep out unwanted particles its ok so therefore you can cover a pot on a blech right before shabbos.
IV. The covering has to be touching the food so if you put a hot potato on a plate and cover it with a glass bowl that doesn’t touch its fine.
1) The basic premise of the melocha
2) The din of אש and תולדות אש
3) The rule if אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש
4) The גזירת חכמים with regard to bishul
מחלוקת: is the אב מלאכה baking(אופה) or cooking(bishul)? This melocha is the last of the סידורא דפת so you’d thing that it should be אופה because the bread got baked. However, most rishonim hold that סידורא דפת is symbolic and baking was not a אב מלאכה {because some say that the מלאכת המשכן are the preparatory melachos and not the function melachos.} {And they cooked the dyes for the יריעות}
Bishul: causing a change in a food or substance by the use of heat.
The first 3 parts of the melocha apply to these words.
1) Basic Premise--causing a change in a substance with heat (soft to hard/hard to soft).
a. צלי- roasting
b. בישול- cooking
c. אופה- baking
d. טיגון- frying
Bishul is in a liquid- the change takes place in the substance while it’s in a hot liquid
צלי is without liquid- dry heat
אופה- is without liquid- dry heat
(צלי makes the hard to soft with a flame but אופה makes the soft too hard with a flame). טיגון is frying or sautéing with a small amount of oil (deep frying is considered אופה).
But what is causation in this case? What does it mean to cause a change?
Even making an indirect change (ex. I put a pot on the flame but I didn’t make it hot it was the flame that did it-still it’s indirectly my fault). The main changes that occur in food or drinks: inedible to edible.
So if a food in its raw state is edible is doing bishul on it אסור? (Ex. baked apple)
There is no אסור דאורייתא. However, bishul is applicable to food and non food alike. For ex. if you put a blech on the fire it’s usually ok unless a physical change will occur to it (change colors). Heat has to be hot enough to cause change. Not all heats cause bishul (solar heat). דאורייתא you’re allowed to boil your water with solar heat. But most types of solar heat are אסור דאורייתא.
Shiur bishul- the change is from inedible to edible
When does the change occur? Chazal say that the minimum for food is מאכל בן דרוסאי-the food of a refugee. The amount of time someone would wait if they were on the run or had no time. It’s a machlokes whether this is ½ or 1/3 of bishul. For liquid its יד סולדת when it reaches 110 F. The higher shiur is 160-170. Why is this bishul if the drink was already edible? Because heat is an important factor to people when it comes to liquids (you spill out cold coffee). Boiling isn’t the change here because it changes from liquid to gas. So it doesn’t really apply here.
All melachos have an act however bishul doesn’t because you don’t actually do you cause it. Why is it a problem? The act you did of contacting a substance with heat is the melacha. The rest which happens on its own is caused because of that. So therefore it can happen many times to a substance because you keep contacting it with heat.
There are methods of kiruv bishul- causing bishul to accelerate (although it would cook anyway)
• Moving food closer to heat-קירוב על האש
• Covering a pot while it’s on the flame-לכסות הקדרה
• Stirring-מגיס (because it causes it to cook more even- top gets hot)
• Removing some of the substance so that the remaining part will cook faster- פינוי התבשיל
Therefore make sure the food is cooked before shabbos so if you do any of the above you won’t be עובר on bishul. For the water in an urn to be considered cooked, use the higher shiur of יד סולדת.
2) אש and תולדות אש-a substance that gives off heat without its original source
There are different types of heat. For ex. you can either scramble an egg on a flame (active heat) or you can scramble it on a preheated pan (absorbed heat).
Sometimes you don’t even realize that the food got cooked because only the outer layer got affected.
There are about 6-7 levels of absorbed heat. It can even be done with hot foods. For ex., you pour hot gravy on an onion so it gets cooked.
There are 6 levels (plus another possible one).
• כלי ראשון
• עירוי
• כלי שני
• כלי שלישי
• כף
• דבר גוש
The כלי ראשון is the pot-the container cooked on the flame. If it’s on the flame, its כלי ראשון על האש. If it isn’t on the flame it’s called כלי ראשון שהותר מן האש. Almost anytime you put something into the pot it will cook so it’s אסור to put food in.
The כלי שני is the container you transfer the food into. If it was poured in it’s considered a complete כלי שני, if it was ladled in it’s a שאלה whether it’s considered a complete כלי שני.
The halachos of bishul don’t go according to physics (ex. יד סולדת isn’t the same as boiling pt.).
יד סולדת can be achieved by a direct or indirect heat. It’s like putting a food on an electric rod that had just had electricity running through. Or like putting a hot food onto a cold food so that the cold food will get cooked. Not all heat is the same. Although תולדות אש can cause bishul, not all types of it will. However אש always causes bishul.
When you cook with solar heat it’s not אסור דאורייתא however its אסור דרבנן (to make it look like bishul)because it looks like bishul. There is solar heat and secondary solar heat. Secondary solar heat is אסור because it will look like תולדות אש. For ex., you’ll see someone frying an egg on a preheated pan and you’ll think he heated it on a fire. But if you see someone cooking directly by using solar heat you won’t confuse it with anything else.
כלי ראשון
While it’s on the fire is considered אש. When it’s not on the fire it’s considered תולדות אש. Anything that you’ll put into it will get cooked with one exception בשרא דתורא- ox meat- because it’s so tough- so that needs to be directly on the flame and not on תולדות אש. Let’s say you poured water the pot that’s not on the flame to cool it down its bishul because you cooked the water.
כלי שני
It’s the container that you pour the contents of the pot into. If some of the food you put into it will get cooked it’s a כלי שני. קלי הבישול are foods that will get cooked in a כלי שני. חומר הבישול wont (they’re resistant to heat) however we don’t really know what’s the חומרי הבישול so we treat most foods as if they’re קלי הבישול.
Foods that we know are חומרי הבישול: water (so you can put an ice cube into hot foods), olive oil, fresh cinnamon sticks, fresh ginger and ox meat. But once any of these things are ground up and flaky they become קלי הבישול. Anything that is flaky and thin is considered קלי הבישול. Mined salt is a שאלה, but regular table salt (coarse salt not included) is fine because it has been processed and has undergone some heat. So you can put it into a כלי שני.
ערוי
It’s a hot stream of liquid being poured into something. It gets cooled somewhat by the air so therefore it only causes bishul on the outer layer- קליפה. Therefore you can pour hot water on a baby bottle because it only cooks the outside of the bottle and the drink inside is unaffected. As a general rule if you cannot pour something into a כלי ראשון you may not do עירוי with it.
כף
It’s a serving spoon or ladle. Some say that it’s counted as a כלי on its own and it will make the next one be a כלי שני as opposed to a כלי ראשון or a כלי שלישי as opposed to a כלי שני.
There are 3 levels
1- חומרי הבישול
2- Semi חומרי הבישול
3- קלי הבישול
There is a kind of fish called קולית הספנין that if you put this into a כלי שני it will get cooked. It’s one of the קלי הבישול. You’re not allowed to put tea bags into a כלי שני because its קלי הבישול. Poskim aren’t sure about כף, some say you can use it as a כלי ראשון but others say it’s not because it never cooked over the flame, so it must be a כלי שני. But some say if you put it into the soup it assumes the level of the soup. So then it’s still a כלי ראשון. So the next bowl is either a כלי שני or a כלי שלישי. Which one is it? It makes a big difference whether the bowl is a כלי שני or a כלי שלישי because you cannot put קלי הבישול into a כלי שני. So the Mishnah Berurah says that since we don’t know, we should be machmir and consider it to be a כלי שני (so don’t put in any קלי הבישול). However you may put in one of the קלי הבישול that’s already been cooked or baked because אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש. אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש is a ספק so don’t use it when bowl is surely a כלי שני but when it’s a ספק כלי שני or a כלי שלישי you can rely on it. So you may put matzah/ croutons etc. in soup but not spices because it’s fresh. (Croutons are deep fried which is the same as bishul so its fine. Matzah is done with אפייה and not bishul so you can’t say אין בישול אחר בישול because maybe יש בישול אחר אפייה so it’s different than croutons. So why is it permissible? Because בישול אחר אפייה is a ספק and so is כף. So if you ladle it out it’s not for sure a כלי שני so it’s ok.)
However, do not keep ladle sitting in soup, but keep it out and only dip it into the bowl when necessary.
דבר גוש
It’s when the food is thick (for ex., cholent, mashed potatoes). That always has the din of a כלי ראשון. So whatever number כלי it is in, it’s not allowed to have another food put into it. Then if you spoon it out onto a plate, it’s a ספק whether it’s a כלי שני or a כלי ראשון. So only put in חומרי הבישול.
Liquids that have been cooked but cooled down are a problem to reheat. But you usually can be מיקל.
Some poskim say that a דבר גוש always gives its container the din of a כלי ראשון. We are machmir to hold this way. (When the דבר גוש is in a liquid it doesn’t always have the din of a כלי ראשון) You can put salt in because it’s a ספק and a דבר גוש is also a ספק so there’s room to מיקל. But some are still machmir not to. Other than that לכתחילה you should only put in cooked foods or drinks. You cannot put in raw food or drinks. Let’s say you have cholent on a plate next to coleslaw- it’s a problem if they touch because the דבר גוש might cook the coleslaw. It’s questionable-don’t do it! Can you put ketchup onto hot chicken even though ketchup is cooked? Maybe you’d think no because it’s not a דבר גוש. R’ Moshe Feinstein said its ok. (Explained below)
3) בישול אחר בישול
We have a כלל of אין בישול אחר בישול בדבר יבש. That means that you can put a cooked food even into a כלי ראשון because bishul won’t happen again. But it must be a כלי ראשון שהותר מן האש (can’t be on the fire).
But there are 2 conditions
a) The food must be a דבר יבש not a דבר לח.
b) It must be the same type of bishul previously done to the food (for ex. Fried chicken can be refried but not baked).
Making a tea
Teabags are קלי הבישול (make sure they’re kosher). If you pour water directly from the urn and then put the teabag into it its bishul (because its עירוי כלי ראשון). If you pour water from a כלי ראשון and then put the teabag into it its אסור (because you can’t be סומך on עירוי כלי ראשון). But you can put the teabag into a כלי שלישי. It’s good to make tea cense before Shabbos, kept warm and on Shabbos put it into a cup of hot כלי שני water (tea cense- soak tea bags in warm water). Why can’t you pour water into soaked tea bags? Because then you’ll be doing עירוי and the tea bag itself will get cooked but not the contents.
You can reheat a דבר לח that is warm but not if it’s not longer warm enough that someone wouldn’t eat it. So if you have a bowl of soup that has been cooled down, if it didn’t yet reach the level that it wouldn’t taste good enough to eat it you can reheat it.
If you have a glass that is still drying off and now you want to pour in a hot liquid you should dry it off first. That’s if it’s an accumulation of liquid in it. But if there are just residual droplets its fine even if it’s cold.
4) גזירת חכמים
There are 4 גזירות
i. שהי-יה- the requirement of putting a blech on a stovetop. שהי-יה means to remain- nothing happening. Even though מן התורה you could start cooking (causing change) sometime right before shabbos, the chachomim made this אור
ii. חזרה- the prohibition of putting something on the blech or back on the blech. Even if you put something into a pot that had food and then returned the pot to the blech, that’s חזרה to the new food you put in even if it’s not חזרה to the pot itself because you fulfilled the certain conditions: עודה בידו, and having in mind to put back the pot onto the blech. Its חזרה because you added something new.
iii. הטמנה- insulating a hot food before shabbos while its still on its source of heat. This is הטמנה בדבר שמוסיף הבל. Its מותר if its הטמנה בדבר שאינו מוסיף הבל and it’s before shabbos.
iv. רחיצה- you cannot shower on shabbos or yom tov.
שהי-יה
You must cover the stove with a blech. You cannot leave a pot of raw food to remain of an open flame (if you put it on night before shabbos). So put a blech- this allows a pot of food to be put on a flame because now the flame is covered. Not every covering can do the job. If it’s not properly covered it does not fill the conditions of גרופה קטומה. So you can’t use such a blech. But if the blech is גרופה קטומה its fine. But you should know that although it’s not אסור to put a pot of raw food on the blech right before shabbos it’s not recommended because maybe you’ll do חזרה of kiruv bishul.
An oven has a flame but you can’t see it so you might think its fine. But it’s not because you can’t see it rather it’s not גרופה קטומה because if you look hard enough you’ll see it. Why do flames need to be covered? 1~because the chachamim were afraid שמא יחטה בגחלים- maybe he’ll fan the flames of the coals. So if you hide it you won’t fan the flames. This is גרופה. 2~ because we want a היכר that it’s not allowed so we cover it. This is קטומה.
We pasken that just the flames must be covered but there are those that say also knobs have to be covered- so blechs have a front.
שהי-יה doesn’t technically apply if food is completely cooked (at least מאכל בן דרוסאי). But still you should user a blech because it otherwise looks like a זלזול because everybody does it.
If you have a blech you may take food that’s raw and put it on the blech right before shabbos.
An oven isn’t considered covered so its not גרופה קטומה. Even though the flame isn’t very visible it’s a problem because the דרך העולם is to cook on there. So if its not at least 1/3 cooked before shabbos you can’t put food in there. לכתחילה 1* you’re food should be at least מאכל בן דרוסאי 2* you should cover you’re flame with a blech.
חזרה
You cannot return food the flame even if theres a blech and even if its not bishul (its already been cooked). So you can use a הפסק קדירה- put it on top of a pot (some people use an upside down plate on the blech but not everybody agrees because they say that it needs to have food in it). Why? So it won’t look like bishul. Therefore if you want to take it off how can do a kosher חזרה?
When you take it off and put it back on it must be fully cooked
When you take it off you must have in mind to put it back (be חוזר)- דעתו להחזיר
The whole time that it’s off the flame you need to be holding it or grasping it even if it’s down on the counter.
When you put it back it needs to be warm
When you put it back you must put it on a blech – you cannot put it back into the oven
So a crock pot needs a קטומה in order to do חזרה with it. Some say that its considered as though it already has a kosher covering but it’s advisable to make a blech for it by putting in aluminum foil. Also crock pots don’t have a problem with שהי-יה if it’s completely cooked or at least 1/3 cooked before shabbos.
R’ Moshe: blechs have 3 areas
אש- where the fire is
יד סולדת- area close enough around the fire that is ד סולדת
צינו- beyond that (not as hot)
You may move the pot back and forth between אש and יד סולדת without any conditions. But if you want to move between אש and צינו (it’s like a regular countertop) so you need the conditions when you dish out cholent don’t do it over אש because its מגיס.
הטמנה
הטמנה is a גזירת חכמים of bishul. It means להטמין – to hide – insulating a hot food by covering it. Why was the גזירה made? For the times of the gemara but we keep them. After they cooked food they either put it in sand or wool material or coals so they made this אסורbecause they might fan the flames.
There are 2 types
a. הטמנה בדבר המעמיד הבל- maintains heat
b. הטמנה כדבר המוסיף הבל- adds heat
An ex. of this is wrapping a pot in a blanket. Some of these keep in heat but some generate heat. For ex. sand is מעמיד הבל and salt is מוסיף הבל.
If before shabbos you wrap a pot in a regular blanket and you shut the flame = מעמיד. If you do the same but the blanket is electric = מוסיף. Both מעמיד and מוסיף are אסור on shabbos. But before shabbos מעמיד is מותר.
If you have pots on a blech over a flame you cannot wrap it while it’s on the blech because even though the blanket is not an active source of heat there is a source of heat underneath so it’s as if the blanket is causing it heat.
There are 4 rules of הטמנה
I. כלו – must be completely covered. So if you leave a substantial amount uncovered its not הטמנה
II. Its only with כלי ראשון – so you may put hot water into a כלי שני
III. כונה – its only when you intend to do הטמנה. So if you cover the pot only to keep out unwanted particles its ok so therefore you can cover a pot on a blech right before shabbos.
IV. The covering has to be touching the food so if you put a hot potato on a plate and cover it with a glass bowl that doesn’t touch its fine.
Monday, June 7, 2010
Dinim questions for final
1. What are the three major categories of ברכות? Give examples.
a. ברכות הנהניו- we say before we get pleasure from something in this world.
i. Foods
ii. Smelling בשמים
b. ברכות המצוות- we say before we do a מצוה.
i. ברכות התורה
c. ברכות שבח והודעה
i. ש''ע
ii. ברכת המזון
2. Fill in the blanks: As a general rule, if a person has a doubt if he/she stated a ברכה, whose obligation is דאוריתא then he/she must repeat it. But if the obligation is דרבנן then it is not repeated.
3. Who developed the language of the ברכות? עזרא and the אכה''ג.
4. What is the prefix of a ברכה? פתיחה- ברוך אתה ה'
What is the suffix of a ברכה? חתימה- end of the ברכה.
What is the subject of a ברכה? נוסאי- what the ברכה is talking about.
5. What is a ברכה קצרה? A ברכה with a פתיחת הברכה and נוסאי.
What is a ברכה ארוכה? A ברכה with a פתיחת הברכה, נוסאי and חתימת הברכה.
6. Write five (with dashes to break up the name) of the seven names of השם.
a. יקוק
b. ל' אדנות
c. אלוקים, אלוקנו
d. קל
e. אהקה
f. שקי
g. צבקות
7. What parts of the prefix of a ברכה are necessary for the ברכה to be valid?
a. It has to have a ל' of ברוך.
b. It has to have a שם ה'.
c. It has to have a ל' of מלך.
8. When will a ברכה ארוכה not need a prefix and why? When you have a ברכה סמוך לחברתא- series of ברכות, each ברכה doesn’t need its own prefix because they are all connected.
9. When an individual in error changes some of the language of a ברכה, what three conditions must be met in order that the ברכה remain a valid one?
a. The prefix has to have all three elements mentioned in Question 7.
b. What was left out can’t be something which חז''ל said must be stated.
c. The ברכה can’t be changed from a ברכה ארוכה to a ברכה קצרה or from a ברכה קצרה to a ברכה ארוכה.
d. It must be the appropriate ברכה for that situation.
10. A person said אשר יצר and did not end with a ברכה. Is it valid? Why? This ברכה is not valid because the individual changed it from a ברכה ארוכה to a ברכה קצרה.
11. A Russian immigrant who does not understand Hebrew or English says a ברכה in English. Is it a valid ברכה? Why? If a person doesn’t understand what he’s saying, he can not be יוצא in a different language.
If he says a ברכה in Hebrew, is it a valid ברכה? Why? Yes. Because in ל' הקודש, even if you don’t understand what you are saying, you are יוצא.
12. A person thought (but did not say) the appropriate ברכה before drinking a glass of milk and has not yet drunk the milk. What should he/she do and why? If the same person already drank the milk, what should he/she do and why? You must recite a ברכה because you are not יוצא by thinking. ? He should say a ברכה on the rest. ?
13. What מצוות are transgressed when a person states an incomplete ברכה? (Quote פסוקים if applicable)
a. ''את ה' אלוקיך תירא''
b. ''אם לא תשמר לירא הם הנכבד והנורא''
14. What מצוות are transgressed when a person states the word “רחום” in vain? (Quote פסוקים if applicable) This questing is unclear, but if anyone knows the answer, please let me know. Thank you!
15. When one of the שמות של השם is mentioned in vain, we say “ברוך שם כבוד מלכותו וכו'”. How does this help? (ב שיטות)
a. רמב''ם- it gives context to the non- context.
b. One is showing appropriate כבוד for the שם and asking מחילה.
16. If a person said the “בורא פרי העץ” on a potato, what transgression has he/she committed? ברכה לבטלה כפשוטו
17. What is the difference between a ברכה לבטלה and מזכיר שם שמים לשוא? מזכיר שם שמים לשוא is saying the שם השם with no context. A ברכה לבטלה is a complete phrase, but is inappropriate for the situation.
18. Give three examples of ברכה שאינה צריכתה.
a. Fruit bowl- you make a ברכה on an apple and then the same ברכה again on a peach.
b. סעודה- if you take a drink of water before you wash and then you go wash.
c. You ate a מזונות and something that’s על העץ and then you made to separate ברכה אחרונה.
19. Some פוסקים hold that when a person mentions a ברכה לבטלה, he/she transgresses only an אסור דרבנן. Why? Because ''לא תשא את שם ה' אלוקיך לשוא" is only דאורייתא by a שבועת שוא and a שבועת שקר.
20. If a female eats her fill at a bread meal, is her obligation to bench דרבנן or דאורייתא? Discuss. There is a מחלוקת as to whether ברכת המזון is a דאורייתא form woman or not. Many woman are נוהג that ברכת המזון is a דאורייתא.
21. If a man has eaten (at a bread meal) his fill and is doubtful if he recited ברכת המזון, what should he do? He must repeat it.
22. A woman ate her fill at a bread meal. However, she is in doubt whether she had recited ברכת המזון or not, what עצות does she have? Many woman are נוהג that ברכת המזון is a דאורייתא, therefore she is like a man in this situation and she must repeat it.
23. If one had eaten some grapes and is in doubt whether he recited the ברכה אחרונה, what should he do? Really, they are דרבנן so if someone has a ספק, they don’t repeat. However if there is a doubt:
a. Make a ברכה again on the same fruit and make a ברכה אחרונה on both.
b. Make a ברכה on a different fruit and make a ברכה אחרונה on both.
c. Eat a כזית of מזונות and combine the ברכה אחרונה.
d. If all else fails, he does not repeat.
24. If a person is in doubt whether he/she said a ברכה ראשונה on some cake, what three ways can he/she recite the ברכה ראשונה without running into the risk of a ברכה לבטלה?
a. Think the ברכה in your mind and don’t say it.
b. Say the ברכה but don’t say the שם ה'.
c. Say the ברכה and think the שם ה'.
25. Esther said a ברכה on a slice of apple and before eating it the apple fell from her hand. What should she do? If she set aside a part in her hand to make the ברכה on, since it’s elevated to a higher status, she should:
a. Try to salvage it.
b. If it’s too disgusting, eat from something else.
c. If that’s all she had, she says “ברוך שם כבוד מלכותו וכו'”.
26. What should a person do in the following instances:
a. If one recited a ברכה, then before eating remembered it’s a fast day? Allow the ברכה to become a ברכה לבטלה.
b. If one recited a ברכה on some meat, then before eating remembered it’s the nine days?
i. Try to find something else to fill the ברכה.
ii. If he only has meat, he should eat a little bit of the meat so that the ברכה doesn’t become a ברכה לבטלה.
27. Esther was about to participate in a bread meal. She removed her rings and placed them in between her teeth, washed her hands and said the appropriate ברכה. What did she do wrong and why? (Quote פסוקים if applicable) Her rings shouldn’t have been in her mouth when she recited the ברכה because it says, “ומלא פי תהילותיך”.
28. What is the appropriate size of a yarmulke?
a. כסוי רוב ראש
b. Big enough that when in its proper place it can be seen from all angles.
29. What are the five areas of a woman, if exposed a “טפח”, a man may not say a ברכה in her presence?
a. Neckline- collarbone and down.
b. Arms- from the elbow and upwards.
c. Leg-
i. From the knee and upwards.
ii. Some hold from the ankle and upwards.
d. Hair of a married woman.
e. קול זמר of a woman.
30. From what age does a woman have to be careful of the above mentioned exposed areas?
a. 3
b. 7 or 8- depends on her maturity.
c. 12
31. In the following instances, what should a person do if he/she wants to daven facing east (מזרח)?
a. There is uncovered waste in the same room to the right (south side)? We have to cover the waste, estimate where the bad smell ends and distance ourselves 4 אמות. When it comes to davening ש''ע, we can’t see the rotting material.
b. There is uncovered waste in the same room to the left (north side)? We have to cover the waste, estimate where the bad smell ends and distance ourselves 4 אמות. When it comes to davening ש''ע, we can’t see the rotting material.
c. There is exposed waste in the same room on the eastern side of the room? We have to cover the waste, estimate where the bad smell ends and distance ourselves 4 אמות. When it comes to davening ש''ע, we can’t see the rotting material- stand in a position where the waste would be behind you.
32. There was some rotting meat in one room. However, the odor reached the adjacent room. What is the הלכה if someone wants to daven in the adjacent room? We just have to get out of the smelly area.
33. Certain picnic areas have the old fashioned bathrooms hat do not have plumbing in them; what does one have to be careful of in terms of תפלות וברכות? The walls of these old bathrooms have the דין as if it’s the dirt itself:
a. We have to distance ourselves from the walls.
b. If there is a bad odor, it’s considered a רוח רע שיש בו עיקר so we have to move four אמות.
c. If it’s in the מזרח, you have to make sure you don't see it when davening.
34. Sara said a ברכה on a glass of water, but before drinking it she told her younger brother to be quiet. What is the הלכה and why? Since she was מפסיק with דברי חול, it invalidates the ברכה.
35. Sara said a ברכה on a piece of cake and before eating it she answered ''אמן'' to her friend’s ברכה. What is the הלכה and why?
a. Some hold that it isn’t considered an interruption because it’s on the same level .
b. Others hold that one shouldn’t say anything- even though it’s on the same level, it’s different areas, so it’s considered an interruption and he has to repeat.
c. כף החיים- לחתכילה one shouldn’t interrupt, but if he already did, ספק ברכות להקל because it’s a דרבנן.
36. In the following instances what preparation, if any, should be done to the food before saying a ברכה and eating from it (be specific):
a. Hot cocoa drink- put some on a spoon, blow on it and only when it’s cool enough should he make a ברכה.
b. A loaf of bread (weekdays)- When making a ברכה on a full roll, cut two-thirds of the way down, but enough that the roll should still be שלם. Make a ברכה, break off a piece, and eat.
c. Candy bar (in wrapper)- take the food out of the packaging, or at least expose enough that you could eat it immediately after reciting a ברכה.
d. Peanuts (shelled)- open up at least one and make a ברכה only after it’s shelled.
37. As a general rule, what actions are permissible after a person had recited a ברכה on a bread meal and had not yet begun to eat?
a. Salt- it’s a מצוה מדרבנן to dip our חלה in salt. If someone made the ברכה and sees that they need the salt, they can לחתכילה say, “please pass the salt”.
b. There’s a חיוב on a person to feed his animals before himself. If he made a ברכה and it was time to feed the animals, he can ask someone to go feed the animals. If there is no one else to feed the animals, he should eat a כזית and go feed the animals.
c. If someone is approaching the table, but did not yet wash their hands, and the ראש סעודה is making המוציא, he can listen, answer אמן, go wash his hands and then eat.
d. If someone washed their hands, made a ברכה and is about to make המוציא and someone says that he touched his hands, since it’s a ספק, he should go wash again to remove the ספק and then he can eat.
38. Sara remembered after saying “המוציא” but before she ate from the bread that she had not washed her hands appropriately. What should she do and why? Since it’s a ספק, she should go wash again to remove the ספק and then she can eat.
39. If one had drunk some water and while it is still in the mouth remembered that he did not make a שהכל ברכה; what should he do now?
a. If he doesn’t have any more of that drink on the table, he should swallow it without a ברכה.
b. If he has more, he should spit it out and make a ברכה on what he has.
40. If one had eaten a piece of cake and while the cake was still in the mouth realized that he did not make a ברכה; what should he do now?
a. If it’s not disgusting, he should take it out and make a ברכה.
b. If it’s disgusting, he should move the food to the side of his mouth and make a ברכה before swallowing.
41. What is the הלכה in the following cases: (state reason)
a. A person had stated a ברכה until (and including) the word “מלך” and answered “אמן” to his friend’s ברכה: He has to repeat the ברכה.
b. A person was in the middle of a ברכה ארוכה and answered “אמן” to his friend’s ברכה: By a ברכה ארוכה, once a person gets into the נושאי, if they interrupt so long as they don’t have הסך הדעת, it doesn’t invalidate the ברכה.
42. May a person recite a ברכה, even if he does not know if his hands are spiritually clean or not? No. He should wash or rub his hands.
43. Explain what are the two sides of the rule ספק ברכות להקל? When we are in doubt whether we need to recite a ברכה or not, we go according to the lenient view and do not say the ברכה. When a person is in doubt, he is in a predicament: if he does say it, he’ll be saying a ברכה לבטלה, which is a דאורייתא. If he doesn’t say the ברכה, he’ll be עובר on a דרבנן. Rather we should be עובר on the דרבנן, so we do not repeat. By a חיוב דאורייתא, this כלל doesn’t apply.
44. If one has not yet washed his hands for a המוציא; however he heard the head of the table recite המוציא on the חלה is he or she יוצא with the ברכה of the head of the household? Explain. If someone is approaching the table, but did not yet wash their hands, and the ראש סעודה is making המוציא, he can listen, answer אמן, go wash his hands and then eat.
45. What suggestions do the חכמים make in terms of having the proper כוונה when reciting a ברכה?
a. Hold the thing that you’re making the ברכה on in your right hand.
b. Do not occupy yourself with anything else.
c. “ומלא פי תהילותיך”
d. Say the ברכה aloud.
46. If a man is in doubt whether he said ברכת התורה and he is davening that day; which ברכה of the three ברכת התורה does he recite? The ברכה of “אשר בחר בנו” because it encompasses the others.
47. If a woman forgot to say ברכת התורה, what can she do to be ברכת התורה יוצא?
a. In אהבה רבה, you think that you should be יוצא. When you finish davening, you should learn a little bit.
b. She can ask someone else to be יוצא her.
48. If Rachel came late to shul on שבת and was in the middle of ברכת קריעת שמע when the ש''ץ started קדיש (יתגדל ויתקדש שמיה רבא). What parts of קדיש does she answer to? She can answer to ''אמן. יהא שמי רבה...''
49. In the same instance as above, however, the ש''ץ said קדושה (נקדש את שמך), to what does she answer? By קדושה, we only say the sentence of ''קדוש קדוש קדוש'' and we’ll say ''ברוך כבוד ה' ממקומו''.
50. In the same instance as above, the ש''ץ reached מודים אנחו לך, to what does she answer? When the חזן says ''המחזיר שכינתו לציון'', we don’t answer ''אמן'', but we do bow down and say the words ''מודים אנחנו לך''.
51. What is the proper כוונה that one should have when saying the following שמות of ה':
a. אדונ-י'- הי' הווה ויהי' אדון העולמים
b. אלקים- ה' is the One who encompasses all the כוחות in the world- He’s הכל יכול.
c. בורא- the Creator and the מקיים- he sustains.
a. ברכות הנהניו- we say before we get pleasure from something in this world.
i. Foods
ii. Smelling בשמים
b. ברכות המצוות- we say before we do a מצוה.
i. ברכות התורה
c. ברכות שבח והודעה
i. ש''ע
ii. ברכת המזון
2. Fill in the blanks: As a general rule, if a person has a doubt if he/she stated a ברכה, whose obligation is דאוריתא then he/she must repeat it. But if the obligation is דרבנן then it is not repeated.
3. Who developed the language of the ברכות? עזרא and the אכה''ג.
4. What is the prefix of a ברכה? פתיחה- ברוך אתה ה'
What is the suffix of a ברכה? חתימה- end of the ברכה.
What is the subject of a ברכה? נוסאי- what the ברכה is talking about.
5. What is a ברכה קצרה? A ברכה with a פתיחת הברכה and נוסאי.
What is a ברכה ארוכה? A ברכה with a פתיחת הברכה, נוסאי and חתימת הברכה.
6. Write five (with dashes to break up the name) of the seven names of השם.
a. יקוק
b. ל' אדנות
c. אלוקים, אלוקנו
d. קל
e. אהקה
f. שקי
g. צבקות
7. What parts of the prefix of a ברכה are necessary for the ברכה to be valid?
a. It has to have a ל' of ברוך.
b. It has to have a שם ה'.
c. It has to have a ל' of מלך.
8. When will a ברכה ארוכה not need a prefix and why? When you have a ברכה סמוך לחברתא- series of ברכות, each ברכה doesn’t need its own prefix because they are all connected.
9. When an individual in error changes some of the language of a ברכה, what three conditions must be met in order that the ברכה remain a valid one?
a. The prefix has to have all three elements mentioned in Question 7.
b. What was left out can’t be something which חז''ל said must be stated.
c. The ברכה can’t be changed from a ברכה ארוכה to a ברכה קצרה or from a ברכה קצרה to a ברכה ארוכה.
d. It must be the appropriate ברכה for that situation.
10. A person said אשר יצר and did not end with a ברכה. Is it valid? Why? This ברכה is not valid because the individual changed it from a ברכה ארוכה to a ברכה קצרה.
11. A Russian immigrant who does not understand Hebrew or English says a ברכה in English. Is it a valid ברכה? Why? If a person doesn’t understand what he’s saying, he can not be יוצא in a different language.
If he says a ברכה in Hebrew, is it a valid ברכה? Why? Yes. Because in ל' הקודש, even if you don’t understand what you are saying, you are יוצא.
12. A person thought (but did not say) the appropriate ברכה before drinking a glass of milk and has not yet drunk the milk. What should he/she do and why? If the same person already drank the milk, what should he/she do and why? You must recite a ברכה because you are not יוצא by thinking. ? He should say a ברכה on the rest. ?
13. What מצוות are transgressed when a person states an incomplete ברכה? (Quote פסוקים if applicable)
a. ''את ה' אלוקיך תירא''
b. ''אם לא תשמר לירא הם הנכבד והנורא''
14. What מצוות are transgressed when a person states the word “רחום” in vain? (Quote פסוקים if applicable) This questing is unclear, but if anyone knows the answer, please let me know. Thank you!
15. When one of the שמות של השם is mentioned in vain, we say “ברוך שם כבוד מלכותו וכו'”. How does this help? (ב שיטות)
a. רמב''ם- it gives context to the non- context.
b. One is showing appropriate כבוד for the שם and asking מחילה.
16. If a person said the “בורא פרי העץ” on a potato, what transgression has he/she committed? ברכה לבטלה כפשוטו
17. What is the difference between a ברכה לבטלה and מזכיר שם שמים לשוא? מזכיר שם שמים לשוא is saying the שם השם with no context. A ברכה לבטלה is a complete phrase, but is inappropriate for the situation.
18. Give three examples of ברכה שאינה צריכתה.
a. Fruit bowl- you make a ברכה on an apple and then the same ברכה again on a peach.
b. סעודה- if you take a drink of water before you wash and then you go wash.
c. You ate a מזונות and something that’s על העץ and then you made to separate ברכה אחרונה.
19. Some פוסקים hold that when a person mentions a ברכה לבטלה, he/she transgresses only an אסור דרבנן. Why? Because ''לא תשא את שם ה' אלוקיך לשוא" is only דאורייתא by a שבועת שוא and a שבועת שקר.
20. If a female eats her fill at a bread meal, is her obligation to bench דרבנן or דאורייתא? Discuss. There is a מחלוקת as to whether ברכת המזון is a דאורייתא form woman or not. Many woman are נוהג that ברכת המזון is a דאורייתא.
21. If a man has eaten (at a bread meal) his fill and is doubtful if he recited ברכת המזון, what should he do? He must repeat it.
22. A woman ate her fill at a bread meal. However, she is in doubt whether she had recited ברכת המזון or not, what עצות does she have? Many woman are נוהג that ברכת המזון is a דאורייתא, therefore she is like a man in this situation and she must repeat it.
23. If one had eaten some grapes and is in doubt whether he recited the ברכה אחרונה, what should he do? Really, they are דרבנן so if someone has a ספק, they don’t repeat. However if there is a doubt:
a. Make a ברכה again on the same fruit and make a ברכה אחרונה on both.
b. Make a ברכה on a different fruit and make a ברכה אחרונה on both.
c. Eat a כזית of מזונות and combine the ברכה אחרונה.
d. If all else fails, he does not repeat.
24. If a person is in doubt whether he/she said a ברכה ראשונה on some cake, what three ways can he/she recite the ברכה ראשונה without running into the risk of a ברכה לבטלה?
a. Think the ברכה in your mind and don’t say it.
b. Say the ברכה but don’t say the שם ה'.
c. Say the ברכה and think the שם ה'.
25. Esther said a ברכה on a slice of apple and before eating it the apple fell from her hand. What should she do? If she set aside a part in her hand to make the ברכה on, since it’s elevated to a higher status, she should:
a. Try to salvage it.
b. If it’s too disgusting, eat from something else.
c. If that’s all she had, she says “ברוך שם כבוד מלכותו וכו'”.
26. What should a person do in the following instances:
a. If one recited a ברכה, then before eating remembered it’s a fast day? Allow the ברכה to become a ברכה לבטלה.
b. If one recited a ברכה on some meat, then before eating remembered it’s the nine days?
i. Try to find something else to fill the ברכה.
ii. If he only has meat, he should eat a little bit of the meat so that the ברכה doesn’t become a ברכה לבטלה.
27. Esther was about to participate in a bread meal. She removed her rings and placed them in between her teeth, washed her hands and said the appropriate ברכה. What did she do wrong and why? (Quote פסוקים if applicable) Her rings shouldn’t have been in her mouth when she recited the ברכה because it says, “ומלא פי תהילותיך”.
28. What is the appropriate size of a yarmulke?
a. כסוי רוב ראש
b. Big enough that when in its proper place it can be seen from all angles.
29. What are the five areas of a woman, if exposed a “טפח”, a man may not say a ברכה in her presence?
a. Neckline- collarbone and down.
b. Arms- from the elbow and upwards.
c. Leg-
i. From the knee and upwards.
ii. Some hold from the ankle and upwards.
d. Hair of a married woman.
e. קול זמר of a woman.
30. From what age does a woman have to be careful of the above mentioned exposed areas?
a. 3
b. 7 or 8- depends on her maturity.
c. 12
31. In the following instances, what should a person do if he/she wants to daven facing east (מזרח)?
a. There is uncovered waste in the same room to the right (south side)? We have to cover the waste, estimate where the bad smell ends and distance ourselves 4 אמות. When it comes to davening ש''ע, we can’t see the rotting material.
b. There is uncovered waste in the same room to the left (north side)? We have to cover the waste, estimate where the bad smell ends and distance ourselves 4 אמות. When it comes to davening ש''ע, we can’t see the rotting material.
c. There is exposed waste in the same room on the eastern side of the room? We have to cover the waste, estimate where the bad smell ends and distance ourselves 4 אמות. When it comes to davening ש''ע, we can’t see the rotting material- stand in a position where the waste would be behind you.
32. There was some rotting meat in one room. However, the odor reached the adjacent room. What is the הלכה if someone wants to daven in the adjacent room? We just have to get out of the smelly area.
33. Certain picnic areas have the old fashioned bathrooms hat do not have plumbing in them; what does one have to be careful of in terms of תפלות וברכות? The walls of these old bathrooms have the דין as if it’s the dirt itself:
a. We have to distance ourselves from the walls.
b. If there is a bad odor, it’s considered a רוח רע שיש בו עיקר so we have to move four אמות.
c. If it’s in the מזרח, you have to make sure you don't see it when davening.
34. Sara said a ברכה on a glass of water, but before drinking it she told her younger brother to be quiet. What is the הלכה and why? Since she was מפסיק with דברי חול, it invalidates the ברכה.
35. Sara said a ברכה on a piece of cake and before eating it she answered ''אמן'' to her friend’s ברכה. What is the הלכה and why?
a. Some hold that it isn’t considered an interruption because it’s on the same level .
b. Others hold that one shouldn’t say anything- even though it’s on the same level, it’s different areas, so it’s considered an interruption and he has to repeat.
c. כף החיים- לחתכילה one shouldn’t interrupt, but if he already did, ספק ברכות להקל because it’s a דרבנן.
36. In the following instances what preparation, if any, should be done to the food before saying a ברכה and eating from it (be specific):
a. Hot cocoa drink- put some on a spoon, blow on it and only when it’s cool enough should he make a ברכה.
b. A loaf of bread (weekdays)- When making a ברכה on a full roll, cut two-thirds of the way down, but enough that the roll should still be שלם. Make a ברכה, break off a piece, and eat.
c. Candy bar (in wrapper)- take the food out of the packaging, or at least expose enough that you could eat it immediately after reciting a ברכה.
d. Peanuts (shelled)- open up at least one and make a ברכה only after it’s shelled.
37. As a general rule, what actions are permissible after a person had recited a ברכה on a bread meal and had not yet begun to eat?
a. Salt- it’s a מצוה מדרבנן to dip our חלה in salt. If someone made the ברכה and sees that they need the salt, they can לחתכילה say, “please pass the salt”.
b. There’s a חיוב on a person to feed his animals before himself. If he made a ברכה and it was time to feed the animals, he can ask someone to go feed the animals. If there is no one else to feed the animals, he should eat a כזית and go feed the animals.
c. If someone is approaching the table, but did not yet wash their hands, and the ראש סעודה is making המוציא, he can listen, answer אמן, go wash his hands and then eat.
d. If someone washed their hands, made a ברכה and is about to make המוציא and someone says that he touched his hands, since it’s a ספק, he should go wash again to remove the ספק and then he can eat.
38. Sara remembered after saying “המוציא” but before she ate from the bread that she had not washed her hands appropriately. What should she do and why? Since it’s a ספק, she should go wash again to remove the ספק and then she can eat.
39. If one had drunk some water and while it is still in the mouth remembered that he did not make a שהכל ברכה; what should he do now?
a. If he doesn’t have any more of that drink on the table, he should swallow it without a ברכה.
b. If he has more, he should spit it out and make a ברכה on what he has.
40. If one had eaten a piece of cake and while the cake was still in the mouth realized that he did not make a ברכה; what should he do now?
a. If it’s not disgusting, he should take it out and make a ברכה.
b. If it’s disgusting, he should move the food to the side of his mouth and make a ברכה before swallowing.
41. What is the הלכה in the following cases: (state reason)
a. A person had stated a ברכה until (and including) the word “מלך” and answered “אמן” to his friend’s ברכה: He has to repeat the ברכה.
b. A person was in the middle of a ברכה ארוכה and answered “אמן” to his friend’s ברכה: By a ברכה ארוכה, once a person gets into the נושאי, if they interrupt so long as they don’t have הסך הדעת, it doesn’t invalidate the ברכה.
42. May a person recite a ברכה, even if he does not know if his hands are spiritually clean or not? No. He should wash or rub his hands.
43. Explain what are the two sides of the rule ספק ברכות להקל? When we are in doubt whether we need to recite a ברכה or not, we go according to the lenient view and do not say the ברכה. When a person is in doubt, he is in a predicament: if he does say it, he’ll be saying a ברכה לבטלה, which is a דאורייתא. If he doesn’t say the ברכה, he’ll be עובר on a דרבנן. Rather we should be עובר on the דרבנן, so we do not repeat. By a חיוב דאורייתא, this כלל doesn’t apply.
44. If one has not yet washed his hands for a המוציא; however he heard the head of the table recite המוציא on the חלה is he or she יוצא with the ברכה of the head of the household? Explain. If someone is approaching the table, but did not yet wash their hands, and the ראש סעודה is making המוציא, he can listen, answer אמן, go wash his hands and then eat.
45. What suggestions do the חכמים make in terms of having the proper כוונה when reciting a ברכה?
a. Hold the thing that you’re making the ברכה on in your right hand.
b. Do not occupy yourself with anything else.
c. “ומלא פי תהילותיך”
d. Say the ברכה aloud.
46. If a man is in doubt whether he said ברכת התורה and he is davening that day; which ברכה of the three ברכת התורה does he recite? The ברכה of “אשר בחר בנו” because it encompasses the others.
47. If a woman forgot to say ברכת התורה, what can she do to be ברכת התורה יוצא?
a. In אהבה רבה, you think that you should be יוצא. When you finish davening, you should learn a little bit.
b. She can ask someone else to be יוצא her.
48. If Rachel came late to shul on שבת and was in the middle of ברכת קריעת שמע when the ש''ץ started קדיש (יתגדל ויתקדש שמיה רבא). What parts of קדיש does she answer to? She can answer to ''אמן. יהא שמי רבה...''
49. In the same instance as above, however, the ש''ץ said קדושה (נקדש את שמך), to what does she answer? By קדושה, we only say the sentence of ''קדוש קדוש קדוש'' and we’ll say ''ברוך כבוד ה' ממקומו''.
50. In the same instance as above, the ש''ץ reached מודים אנחו לך, to what does she answer? When the חזן says ''המחזיר שכינתו לציון'', we don’t answer ''אמן'', but we do bow down and say the words ''מודים אנחנו לך''.
51. What is the proper כוונה that one should have when saying the following שמות of ה':
a. אדונ-י'- הי' הווה ויהי' אדון העולמים
b. אלקים- ה' is the One who encompasses all the כוחות in the world- He’s הכל יכול.
c. בורא- the Creator and the מקיים- he sustains.
Wednesday, May 26, 2010
SS- Chapter 22
Chapter 22: Peace with Problems
The US emerged from World War II as a superpower- they had the atom bomb, the economy wasn’t messed up…
During World War II, we were allies with Russia- we joined to fight a common enemy. By the end of the war though, we were opponents. The US viewed Russia as a threat, so the US began a policy of containment- to keep Communism controlled and not let it spread. It was as if an iron curtain had descended between the US and Russia. A main goal of containment was to help with money, for example:
1. Truman Doctrine- gave money to Greece and Turkey to help their governments remain strong and not fall to Communism.
2. Marshall Plan- gave money to any European country so long as they agreed to not be Communist. Gave them money to fight chaos, hunger and desperation.
Start of the Cold War-
The Cold War began in Germany at the end of World War II. Germany had been divided into four zones, each controlled by a different world power- France, Russia, England and the US. Berlin, the capital of Germany, which was in Russia’s zone, was also divided into four zones. A couple of years after the war was over, America, France and England decided that it’s time for Germany to be whole again and they gave up their rights in their zones. Russia, however, didn’t agree with this and did not give up their zone. Russia was angry and decided that in order to prove her power, she was going to blockade West Berlin (the part that was given up). The Allies responded by airlifting supplies to West Berlin for about a year. Every fourteen minuets, another plane took off to drop supplies until Russia finally backed off and lifted the blockade.
Russia took East Berlin and Germany as satellites. Now they would be Communist, just like Russia. At this point, America needed Allies and NATO was formed- an alliance of all non-Communist nations. Russia had the Warsaw Pact.
America worked on containment in Asia also:
1. China- in 1949, China became Communist. Until 1972, America didn’t recognize Red China as a country- they didn’t trade and didn’t have a seat in the UN. Taiwan was recognized in China’s place.
2. Korea- after World War II, was divided at 38° parallel. This was supposed to be a temporary division until things could be worked out. The north was controlled by Communist nations and the south was controlled by Western nations. Before things were worked out, the north invaded the south in an attempt to unite the whole Korea. The UN sent troops to help South Korea. These troops were predominately American, headed by General Douglas MacArthur. The fighting was very intense. One of the most serious events of the Korean War was when MacArthur and his troops reached all the way to the Yalu River. Then, the Chinese got involved and pushed them all the way back down again. Now, there was a difference of thought between Truman and MacArthur. Truman didn’t want a tremendous war so he told MacArthur to lay low- he doesn’t need the whole Korea, just to get the south back their territory- limited war. MacArthur was disobedient and as a result was relieved of his position. America tried to end the war. In 1951, the US stopped fighting. They didn’t sign a treaty until 1953, and when the treaty was signed, we were back at the 38° parallel. This war showed that the US is willing to go to war for containment.
Cold War at home-
The US believed in world freedom, but sometimes, freedoms are limited. In America, in 1950, freedoms were limited. There was now a Red Scare in America. America began to look within for Communists. The HUAC was set up to search for communists. This search continued for about thirty years. Many Americans were blacklisted- accused of being Communists- and as a result, they lost their jobs, their children couldn’t get jobs… The FBI, led by J. Edgar Hoover, was also involved in searching. They worked together with the HUAC.
In 1940, the US passed the Smith Act- you can’t speak or act against the government- it’s illegal. In 1951, the Supreme Court agreed with the Smith Act in Dennis vs. USA. Eugene Dennis was a Communist and the Supreme Court ruled that he could be jailed, fined and locked away.
In 1957, the Supreme Court weakened the Smith Act with two cases:
1. Watkins vs. USA- you can’t punish a witness who refuses to cooperate.
2. Yates vs. USA- you can only punish someone who advocates a direct action against the government.
In 1947, Truman formed the Loyalty Review Board- to review the loyalty of government members. Everyone was now under suspicion. Many government officials lost their jobs due to this:
1. Robert Oppenheimer - was accused, but found innocent. However, he was never given a pass to the Oval Office again.
2. Alger Hiss- an advisor to FDR. He was charged of being a Communist. A Communist member Winacker Chambers said that he knows that Hiss is a communist. There was a whole investigation. A young Republican, Richard Nixon, decided to investigate the case heavily. Hiss was found guilty.
In the midst of all this tension, a senator from Wisconsin, Joseph McCarthy decided to go on his own Communist hunt. He went on a rampage, frightening people with no facts. No one was safe from McCarthy- he accused everyone. He went so far as to accuse the army. He said that they’re not really protecting you. It was 1952 and the investigation was televised. The nation watched and realized that McCarthy was full of hot air. He lost the American people’s respect almost immediately. False, rash accusations are known as McCarthyisms.
In the midst of this tension, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of selling the secret of the atom bomb to the Russians. Over the years, people have tried to prove their innocence. They died by the electric chair.
In 1952, the US passed the McKaren- Walter Act- restricted immigration from Communist countries into America.
In 1952, Eisenhower became president. He continued the policy of containment. He went even further, saying that we’re going to use massive retaliation- we’ll fire back if we have to and go to war if we have to- Brinkmanship. The US was going to be very forceful against communism.
During the Fifties, the US entered an arms race with the Soviet Union. This arms race led to greater tension. The UN tried to limit the arms race. The US and the Soviet Union were also in a space race. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik- a satellite that orbited the earth. It was the first. The US also launched satellites.
The US continued their policy of containment in Asia. They were afraid of the Domino Theory- that if one country will fall to communism, others will follow. Those fears were true.
In the Middle East, the US containment policy continued.
The Eisenhower Doctrine gave money to Middle Eastern countries so that they shouldn’t fall to Communism. The US supported the Shah of Iran so that he should remain in power because the shah was not a communist.
In Egypt, Nasser became the prime minister. He nationalized all business- there was no longer European control. The US supported him, as did Russia so America backed down. Nasser took control of the Suez Canal- important waterway. The Suez Canal had been under French and English control. Now, Nasser nationalized it and said that Israel can’t use the canal. Israel, England and France attacked Egypt and took control of the canal. America got involved and said not to do this because they don’t want to go to war over this. America told Israel, England and France to back down, and they listened.
In Lebanon, the US sent troops to maintain peace.
In Latin America, since the Spanish- American war in 1898, America was heavily involved in Latin America. Latin America didn’t want the US because they felt that they were being bossed around. But America still continued its involvement. In 1958, Vice President Nixon went on a tour of Latin America and they threw eggs at him. This showed the lack of good relations between US and Latin America.
In 1959, Fidel Castro took over Cuba. At first, America supported Cuba, but then Castro nationalized American businesses in Cuba and did other things to anger America- limited human rights... so our involvement with Cuba was lessened. Now there was a communist nation off of our coast, which was scary. Many Cubans fled to America and added to our cultural mix.
During the 50s, our relationship with the Soviet Union was like a roller coaster- Stalin died and in 1953, Khrushchev took over. America thought that now they would be able to work things out with Khrushchev. The US worked on a plan called the Peaceful Coexistence- we respect each other’s differences. We tried to improve our relationship.
In 1955, there were rebellions against Russia in Poland and Hungary. The soviets crushed the rebellions ruthlessly, so our relationship got worse.
In 1959, our relationship improved. We invited Khrushchev to America and met in Camp David. Things were looking good. We agreed to meet again in 1960 at the Summit Meeting and talk about things, such as arms reduction. Just before the meeting, our relationship went downhill again as a result of the U-2 Incident- the U-2, an American spy plane, was shot down over Russian territory and the Russians said that they’re not coming to meet with spies.
Life during the 50’s-
During the 50’s, Eisenhower wanted to cut back on government spending and government involvement. He was president after FDR and Truman, who increased government involvement and spending. They did cut back on defense and foreign aid, but they didn’t cut back on their welfare programs- the New Deal and the Fair Deal programs.
Prosperity of the 50’s bypassed the farmers, so they were given subsidies to help them. Much of the rest of the country was doing well because America was excited to be consumers once again:
1. People hadn’t spent for years and were now excited to spend.
2. People now had money and were excited to spend it.
The 50’s are sometimes nickname the Good Old Days.
Because of all this spending, one area of growth was in the homes- there was now an explosion of suburbia. Levittown, NY was a suburb that sprung up over night. (It was named after John Levit.) It was a development and had laws of conformity in order to maintain sameness. In general, the 50’s were years of conformity and the 60’s were years of rebellion against this conformity.
Now, the automobile became a pleasure item, not just a functional item. It also helped the growth of suburbia because people could now drive to work. The government now passed the Federal Highway Act- gave $44,000 to build highways and to help the new vistas that the car was opening for us.
America was a nation on the move- people moved from the North Eastern cities to the sunny states, from the Rust Belt to the Sun Belt.
In the 1950’s, television became a household item. It was invented in the 30’s and broadcasting began in the 40’s.
African American civil rights movement-
Truman desegregated the armed forces in the 1940’s. The first time a black joined the MLB was Jackie Robinson, in 1947.
In 1953, Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He served until 1969. The Warren Court made many landmark rulings that changed America, such as Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas- this overturned an earlier ruling of Plessey vs. Ferguson of 1897. It stated that separate but equal is equal. It said that separate facilities are equal. Now, in 1954, this was changed. It was ruled that in education, separate but equal is not equal.
Many black parents wanted to send their children to local white schools- they didn’t want to send them far away to inferior black schools. One of these parents, Oliver Brown, wanted his daughter to go to the white school around the corner. The NAACP helped the African Americans bring their case to the Supreme Court.
The white southerners resisted this ruling. In Little Rock, Arkansas, nine teens enrolled in the central high school and they weren’t allowed in. Eisenhower reluctantly stepped in and told the Arkansas state troopers that they’re under his control. He issued them an executive order to let them into school. The Arkansas governor shut down the school at the end of the year. The south was totally separate.
Many blacks decided not to wait for new laws, but to disobey laws and bring change- civil disobedience. There were many cases of civil disobedience over the years. Civil disobedience is to disobey without using violence.
One of these cases was the Montgomery Bus Boycott- Rosa Parks was coming home from work and there were no seats in the black section of the bus, so she sat in the white section. She was asked to leave, but she refused so they pulled her off the bus. This caused a reaction amongst the blacks- they decided to boycott the busses in Montgomery, Alabama. This boycott lasted for 381 days and made a statement. At the end of the boycott, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on busses is illegal.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. emerged from the Montgomery Bus Boycott as the leader of the Civil Rights movement. He was a dynamic speaker. His mentor was Mohandas Gandhi.
In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act- was supposed to end segregation. It had limited effectiveness, but was the start of change. Many civil rights had a hard time getting passed because the Congressmen didn’t want to pass them. Many Congressmen would filibuster to stop the laws from being passed.
The move for civil rights and civil disobedience continued into the 60’s.
Different situation in the Civil Rights movement:
1. James Meredith- was a retired air force worker. He was black and wanted to enroll in the University of Mississippi. He was not allowed in, so he forced himself in. There were riots on both sides. The Federal government helped him enroll and for the duration of his stay there, he had a bodyguard.
2. Greensboro, North Carolina- a group of black youth decided to protest the segregation in all areas. They sat on white busses, went to white parks and sat at white lunch counters in white restaurants.
As the movement grew, whites joined the blacks to fight segregation. Some whites sponsored freedom riders- passes for blacks to go on white busses. Many were slaughtered or dragged off of the busses.
3. Birmingham, Alabama- there were efforts to desegregate the city. Blacks made a huge march. The police wanted to end the march, so they set dogs on the marchers and shot hoses at them. They jailed about 2,000 people and amongst them was Dr. King. There in jail, he wrote “Letters from a Birmingham Jail”, in which he discussed his principles of civil disobedience and his desire for equality. This protest was televised and people were shocked at how the blacks were treated- helped support the Civil Rights movement.
4. Medgar Evers- worked for the NAACP and he was killed outside of his home in Mississippi by white supremacists.
5. University of Alabama- in 1963, Governor Wallace didn’t allow for black students to enroll. Kennedy, who was president at this time, pressured him to allow them in.
6. President Kennedy spoke to the nation about the need for civil rights- he said they have to do something to help these people. This was the first time that the president spoke publicly about the Civil Rights movement. He discussed passing the Civil Rights bill – to help the African Americans gain equality.
In support of this bill, the blacks organized a huge march in Washington D.C. Whites marched alongside the blacks. It was at this march that King made his famous “I have a dream” speech. Not everyone believed in King’s dream. A few weeks after this march, there was a bomb in an African American church, killing four black girls.
In November of 1963, Kennedy was assassinated and his vice president, Lynden B. Johnson, took over. He pushed heavily to get the Civil Rights Act passed. In 1964 it was passed. It stated:
1. Voting protection
2. Opening of all public facilities
3. Commission was set up for equal job opportunities.
The Supreme Court backed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the Heart of Atlanta Motel vs. USA- no segregation in interstate businesses.
Blacks still felt that they didn’t have total voting rights. The 24th amendment abolished the poll tax to fix this.
The blacks organized a march:
1. To get blacks out to vote and make them aware about voting.
2. To make whites aware that blacks are going to vote.
The march was from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery, Alabama.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 got rid of the literacy test and stated that the Attorney General can punish anyone who denies the blacks the right to vote.
The summer of 1964 was the highlight of the Civil Rights movement- from that point and onward, the Civil Rights movement went downhill. Blacks felt that civil disobedience isn’t working and they want to fight. Malcolm X was a more militant leader. He felt that the whites were unnecessary. He said that they’ll have a black identity and nationalism. Later, he went to Mecca and became a Muslim, changing his style somewhat. He was shot in during a NY rally.
In the late 60’s, there were riots across America. The Kerner Commission was set to discuss why the blacks are fighting. It was decided that it’s because they are angry.
Dr. King won the Noble Peace Prize for furtherance of brotherhood amongst men. Dr. King remained a powerful speaker even after splits in the Civil Rights movement. In spring of 1968, he was speaking in Memphis, Tennessee for striking sanitation workers and the next morning he was shot. His death was both sad and ironic.
A couple of months later, Robert F. Kennedy (President Kennedy’s brother) was campaigning for president and he was assassinated. The feeling now was one of disillusionment.
The Woman’s Rights movement has been going on since the 1800’s, since the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Many women felt that there was a glass sealing which was keeping them from getting higher end jobs.
In 1963m Bett Friedan wrote the “Feminine Mystique”- felt that since World War II, women are pushed out of men’s jobs. She wrote that many women want to get out of the home and want more to their lives. She and her book spurred on the feminist movement of the 60’s and 70’s. The term “Ms.” now became envogue.
Steps toward equality for woman-
1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 stated that you can’t discriminate by race or gender.
2. In 1966, the National Organization for Woman was formed. It worked to pass laws for woman. NOW is still a powerful lobby group today.
3. ERA- woman campaigned for an amendment to the constitution stating that woman and men are equal. It was passed in Congress in 1972. In 1982, it failed to become an amendment in the State. ERA brought much controversy- many people opposed it. Phyllis Schlafy was against it. She said that you don’t need an amendment to settle some women’s inferiority complex.
4. Equal Opportunity Act- stated that woman want equal pay for equal work. It passed in 1972.
5. Roe vs. Wade- argued women’s right to abortion. It was said that a women’s body is her own private domain and she could decide. Only up to the sixth month can a woman go pro choice or pro life.
In order to help woman and other minorities, Johnson began Affirmative Action Programs- positive steps to help the minorities. He will make sure that every job and university will accept some minorities.
Some people fought affirmative action because it causes reverse discrimination- whites being discriminated. One person who felt this way was Alan Bakke- he felt he was suffering for reverse discrimination. He felt that he didn’t get into college because blacks got in instead. In the University of California vs. Alan Bakke, they said that yes, his civil rights may have been abridged, but nevertheless, affirmative action is constitutional.
Three other groups that fought for equal rights:
1. Latinos- Spanish speaking people. Many were migrant farmers- work by the season, moving from place to place. Their lives are difficult and the pay is minimal. Cesar Chavez helped the migrant farmers. He worked through legislation to get them some benefits and equality.
2. Native Americans/ American Indians- wanted rights. The formed the American Indian Movement (AIM). This was going to:
a. Restore “red power”- pride to their heritage.
b. Worked with the government to get back all their lands. They brought many cases and won- got back many lands.
3. Disabled Americans- over the years, America has worked to help handicapped people, but in the 60’s and onward, they really made great strides:
a. Kennedy set up a commission to study the problems of the mentally handicapped.
b. Backed the establishment of the Special Olympics.
c. In 1975, passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act.
d. In 1990, passed the Americans with Disabilities Act- forbade discrimination against people with disabilities in the workforce, public facilities, busses, education, parks…
In recent years, this issue received more publicity through actors, actresses…
Domestic policies of Kennedy and Johnson-
Kennedy was the youngest man elected as president and the only Catholic president (everyone else was Protestant) until Obama. He used his youth in his favor- he said that he understands the people’s needs. He was the first televised president and the first to have a televised debate. He looked exciting on TV, as opposed to Nixon, who looked like a fluke. The nation was excited to have a young couple in the White House. People wanted to copy the young couple. In November of 1963, the Kennedys were campaigning in Dallas, Texas in an open motorcade and Lee Harvey Oswald shot Kennedy.
Two domestic programs:
1. Kennedy- New Frontier
a. Space Program- to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. This was successful. In the summer of 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped onto the moon. As a result of the Space Program, there was an increase of science and math in all schools. They started the students when they were young so that they could find the minds that could be the nation’s rocket scientists. There was also an increase in money for space projects. The program cost about $25 billion.
b. Peace Corps- an effort to help poor nations. Young Americans between the ages of 18-25 went to developing countries to help them.
2. Johnson- Great Society
a. Volunteers In Service To America (VISTA)- young college students helped poor American children- helping within America.
b. Office of Economic Opportunity- economic opportunities for every American:
i. Project Head Start- takes low income children and gives them a head start. Gave free education for three to five year olds.
ii. Upward Bound- gives high school students financial aid to get into college.
iii. Job Corps- to find high school dropouts jobs.
c. Elementary and Secondary School Act- gave money to elementary and secondary schools in particular in low income neighborhoods.
d. Medicare- insurance for the elderly- those over 65.
e. Department of Housing and Urban Development gives housing, money for rent, and built houses for low income people.
f. Food Stamp Program- money for food for low income families. To initiate this program, Johnson passed the Food Stamp Act in 1964. In October of 2008, the food stamp program changed its name to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). There were 29 million Americans on Food stamps in 2008- 10% of nation. Two months ago, Obama changed the program- up until now had to be eligible for food stamps- can’t have any savings. Now Obama changed it that you can have up to $100,000 in savings and still be eligible for food stamps.
Foreign Policies of America-
1. Monroe Doctrine- in 1824, the Monroe Doctrine was issued. It stated that America is in charge of the Western hemisphere and Europe should stay out. This set our policy in the western hemisphere.
2. Spanish- American war- in 1898, the US fought the Spanish and won. This victory gave us many of Spain’s colonies in Latin America and elsewhere. One is Puerto Rico. Cuba became a protectorate. America now became an imperial nation.
3. Panama Canal- 1901- 1914. America wanted to build a canal in Panama, so they helped the people in Panama rebel against Columbia and after they gained their independence, the US built a canal in Panama. America wanted canal for trade reasons- it cut from the Atlantic to the Pacific and helped with trade. America had control of the canal till the end of the 1900s. In 1999, we gave the canal back to Panama.
4. Roosevelt corollary/ Bigstick policy- it was an addition to the Monroe doctrine- that the US will get involved in Latin America whenever Latin America does something that America feels is wrong. There was a cartoon at this time showing Roosevelt dragging Latin America behind him- “speak softly and carry a big stick”.
5. Dollar diplomacy- Taft said that we’ll invest in Latin America and we’ll be very involved.
6. Roosevelt made the Good Neighbor policy- an effort to improve relations with Latin America.
Latin America and the 60’s-
Kennedy made the Alliance for Progress- promised Latin America $20 billion as long as they don’t become Communist.
1. Bay of Pigs Invasion- the US government wanted to overthrow Fidel Castro. The CIA, with the approval of Kennedy, trained American Cubans so that one day they could go back and overthrow Castro. These trained Cubans landed at the Bay of Pigs and Castro’s soldiers captured them all (there was a leak in the CIA, so Castro knew about the invasion). This was heavily embarrassing for America.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis- Cuba allowed Russia to build a missile base in Cuba. The US told Cuba to take the missiles down. This was the tensest moment in the Cold War. America was willing to go to the brink of war. Thankfully, the Cubans backed down and dismantled the missiles. America’s pride after the Bay of Pigs invasion was now restored.
3. In 1963, America, England and Russia agreed to nuclear to the Nuclear Test Ban treaty – they agreed to ban testing in the air and space, and agreed to only do it underground.
4. After the Bay of Pig invasion, Khrushchev asked America to get the NATO troops out of Berlin. He assumed that America would listen because they were weak after the Bay of Pigs fiasco. Kennedy didn’t listen, increased help to West Berlin. In response to American aid, Russia built the Berlin Wall through Berlin. The Berlin Wall stopped the flow of Germans from East Berlin to West Berlin. In 1963, Kennedy spoke at the Berlin Wall, saying that it’s a symbol of tyranny. It stood as the symbol of the Cold War, until 1989 when it was torn down at the end of the Cold War.
Important Supreme Court cases of 60’s and 70’s:
Courts in the 60’s and 70’s protected the rights of the accused. The courts were very liberal. Liberals protect the underdogs. President Eisenhower and later President Nixon appointed the two chief justices, Warren and Berger.
The US emerged from World War II as a superpower- they had the atom bomb, the economy wasn’t messed up…
During World War II, we were allies with Russia- we joined to fight a common enemy. By the end of the war though, we were opponents. The US viewed Russia as a threat, so the US began a policy of containment- to keep Communism controlled and not let it spread. It was as if an iron curtain had descended between the US and Russia. A main goal of containment was to help with money, for example:
1. Truman Doctrine- gave money to Greece and Turkey to help their governments remain strong and not fall to Communism.
2. Marshall Plan- gave money to any European country so long as they agreed to not be Communist. Gave them money to fight chaos, hunger and desperation.
Start of the Cold War-
The Cold War began in Germany at the end of World War II. Germany had been divided into four zones, each controlled by a different world power- France, Russia, England and the US. Berlin, the capital of Germany, which was in Russia’s zone, was also divided into four zones. A couple of years after the war was over, America, France and England decided that it’s time for Germany to be whole again and they gave up their rights in their zones. Russia, however, didn’t agree with this and did not give up their zone. Russia was angry and decided that in order to prove her power, she was going to blockade West Berlin (the part that was given up). The Allies responded by airlifting supplies to West Berlin for about a year. Every fourteen minuets, another plane took off to drop supplies until Russia finally backed off and lifted the blockade.
Russia took East Berlin and Germany as satellites. Now they would be Communist, just like Russia. At this point, America needed Allies and NATO was formed- an alliance of all non-Communist nations. Russia had the Warsaw Pact.
America worked on containment in Asia also:
1. China- in 1949, China became Communist. Until 1972, America didn’t recognize Red China as a country- they didn’t trade and didn’t have a seat in the UN. Taiwan was recognized in China’s place.
2. Korea- after World War II, was divided at 38° parallel. This was supposed to be a temporary division until things could be worked out. The north was controlled by Communist nations and the south was controlled by Western nations. Before things were worked out, the north invaded the south in an attempt to unite the whole Korea. The UN sent troops to help South Korea. These troops were predominately American, headed by General Douglas MacArthur. The fighting was very intense. One of the most serious events of the Korean War was when MacArthur and his troops reached all the way to the Yalu River. Then, the Chinese got involved and pushed them all the way back down again. Now, there was a difference of thought between Truman and MacArthur. Truman didn’t want a tremendous war so he told MacArthur to lay low- he doesn’t need the whole Korea, just to get the south back their territory- limited war. MacArthur was disobedient and as a result was relieved of his position. America tried to end the war. In 1951, the US stopped fighting. They didn’t sign a treaty until 1953, and when the treaty was signed, we were back at the 38° parallel. This war showed that the US is willing to go to war for containment.
Cold War at home-
The US believed in world freedom, but sometimes, freedoms are limited. In America, in 1950, freedoms were limited. There was now a Red Scare in America. America began to look within for Communists. The HUAC was set up to search for communists. This search continued for about thirty years. Many Americans were blacklisted- accused of being Communists- and as a result, they lost their jobs, their children couldn’t get jobs… The FBI, led by J. Edgar Hoover, was also involved in searching. They worked together with the HUAC.
In 1940, the US passed the Smith Act- you can’t speak or act against the government- it’s illegal. In 1951, the Supreme Court agreed with the Smith Act in Dennis vs. USA. Eugene Dennis was a Communist and the Supreme Court ruled that he could be jailed, fined and locked away.
In 1957, the Supreme Court weakened the Smith Act with two cases:
1. Watkins vs. USA- you can’t punish a witness who refuses to cooperate.
2. Yates vs. USA- you can only punish someone who advocates a direct action against the government.
In 1947, Truman formed the Loyalty Review Board- to review the loyalty of government members. Everyone was now under suspicion. Many government officials lost their jobs due to this:
1. Robert Oppenheimer - was accused, but found innocent. However, he was never given a pass to the Oval Office again.
2. Alger Hiss- an advisor to FDR. He was charged of being a Communist. A Communist member Winacker Chambers said that he knows that Hiss is a communist. There was a whole investigation. A young Republican, Richard Nixon, decided to investigate the case heavily. Hiss was found guilty.
In the midst of all this tension, a senator from Wisconsin, Joseph McCarthy decided to go on his own Communist hunt. He went on a rampage, frightening people with no facts. No one was safe from McCarthy- he accused everyone. He went so far as to accuse the army. He said that they’re not really protecting you. It was 1952 and the investigation was televised. The nation watched and realized that McCarthy was full of hot air. He lost the American people’s respect almost immediately. False, rash accusations are known as McCarthyisms.
In the midst of this tension, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of selling the secret of the atom bomb to the Russians. Over the years, people have tried to prove their innocence. They died by the electric chair.
In 1952, the US passed the McKaren- Walter Act- restricted immigration from Communist countries into America.
In 1952, Eisenhower became president. He continued the policy of containment. He went even further, saying that we’re going to use massive retaliation- we’ll fire back if we have to and go to war if we have to- Brinkmanship. The US was going to be very forceful against communism.
During the Fifties, the US entered an arms race with the Soviet Union. This arms race led to greater tension. The UN tried to limit the arms race. The US and the Soviet Union were also in a space race. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik- a satellite that orbited the earth. It was the first. The US also launched satellites.
The US continued their policy of containment in Asia. They were afraid of the Domino Theory- that if one country will fall to communism, others will follow. Those fears were true.
In the Middle East, the US containment policy continued.
The Eisenhower Doctrine gave money to Middle Eastern countries so that they shouldn’t fall to Communism. The US supported the Shah of Iran so that he should remain in power because the shah was not a communist.
In Egypt, Nasser became the prime minister. He nationalized all business- there was no longer European control. The US supported him, as did Russia so America backed down. Nasser took control of the Suez Canal- important waterway. The Suez Canal had been under French and English control. Now, Nasser nationalized it and said that Israel can’t use the canal. Israel, England and France attacked Egypt and took control of the canal. America got involved and said not to do this because they don’t want to go to war over this. America told Israel, England and France to back down, and they listened.
In Lebanon, the US sent troops to maintain peace.
In Latin America, since the Spanish- American war in 1898, America was heavily involved in Latin America. Latin America didn’t want the US because they felt that they were being bossed around. But America still continued its involvement. In 1958, Vice President Nixon went on a tour of Latin America and they threw eggs at him. This showed the lack of good relations between US and Latin America.
In 1959, Fidel Castro took over Cuba. At first, America supported Cuba, but then Castro nationalized American businesses in Cuba and did other things to anger America- limited human rights... so our involvement with Cuba was lessened. Now there was a communist nation off of our coast, which was scary. Many Cubans fled to America and added to our cultural mix.
During the 50s, our relationship with the Soviet Union was like a roller coaster- Stalin died and in 1953, Khrushchev took over. America thought that now they would be able to work things out with Khrushchev. The US worked on a plan called the Peaceful Coexistence- we respect each other’s differences. We tried to improve our relationship.
In 1955, there were rebellions against Russia in Poland and Hungary. The soviets crushed the rebellions ruthlessly, so our relationship got worse.
In 1959, our relationship improved. We invited Khrushchev to America and met in Camp David. Things were looking good. We agreed to meet again in 1960 at the Summit Meeting and talk about things, such as arms reduction. Just before the meeting, our relationship went downhill again as a result of the U-2 Incident- the U-2, an American spy plane, was shot down over Russian territory and the Russians said that they’re not coming to meet with spies.
Life during the 50’s-
During the 50’s, Eisenhower wanted to cut back on government spending and government involvement. He was president after FDR and Truman, who increased government involvement and spending. They did cut back on defense and foreign aid, but they didn’t cut back on their welfare programs- the New Deal and the Fair Deal programs.
Prosperity of the 50’s bypassed the farmers, so they were given subsidies to help them. Much of the rest of the country was doing well because America was excited to be consumers once again:
1. People hadn’t spent for years and were now excited to spend.
2. People now had money and were excited to spend it.
The 50’s are sometimes nickname the Good Old Days.
Because of all this spending, one area of growth was in the homes- there was now an explosion of suburbia. Levittown, NY was a suburb that sprung up over night. (It was named after John Levit.) It was a development and had laws of conformity in order to maintain sameness. In general, the 50’s were years of conformity and the 60’s were years of rebellion against this conformity.
Now, the automobile became a pleasure item, not just a functional item. It also helped the growth of suburbia because people could now drive to work. The government now passed the Federal Highway Act- gave $44,000 to build highways and to help the new vistas that the car was opening for us.
America was a nation on the move- people moved from the North Eastern cities to the sunny states, from the Rust Belt to the Sun Belt.
In the 1950’s, television became a household item. It was invented in the 30’s and broadcasting began in the 40’s.
African American civil rights movement-
Truman desegregated the armed forces in the 1940’s. The first time a black joined the MLB was Jackie Robinson, in 1947.
In 1953, Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He served until 1969. The Warren Court made many landmark rulings that changed America, such as Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas- this overturned an earlier ruling of Plessey vs. Ferguson of 1897. It stated that separate but equal is equal. It said that separate facilities are equal. Now, in 1954, this was changed. It was ruled that in education, separate but equal is not equal.
Many black parents wanted to send their children to local white schools- they didn’t want to send them far away to inferior black schools. One of these parents, Oliver Brown, wanted his daughter to go to the white school around the corner. The NAACP helped the African Americans bring their case to the Supreme Court.
The white southerners resisted this ruling. In Little Rock, Arkansas, nine teens enrolled in the central high school and they weren’t allowed in. Eisenhower reluctantly stepped in and told the Arkansas state troopers that they’re under his control. He issued them an executive order to let them into school. The Arkansas governor shut down the school at the end of the year. The south was totally separate.
Many blacks decided not to wait for new laws, but to disobey laws and bring change- civil disobedience. There were many cases of civil disobedience over the years. Civil disobedience is to disobey without using violence.
One of these cases was the Montgomery Bus Boycott- Rosa Parks was coming home from work and there were no seats in the black section of the bus, so she sat in the white section. She was asked to leave, but she refused so they pulled her off the bus. This caused a reaction amongst the blacks- they decided to boycott the busses in Montgomery, Alabama. This boycott lasted for 381 days and made a statement. At the end of the boycott, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on busses is illegal.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. emerged from the Montgomery Bus Boycott as the leader of the Civil Rights movement. He was a dynamic speaker. His mentor was Mohandas Gandhi.
In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act- was supposed to end segregation. It had limited effectiveness, but was the start of change. Many civil rights had a hard time getting passed because the Congressmen didn’t want to pass them. Many Congressmen would filibuster to stop the laws from being passed.
The move for civil rights and civil disobedience continued into the 60’s.
Different situation in the Civil Rights movement:
1. James Meredith- was a retired air force worker. He was black and wanted to enroll in the University of Mississippi. He was not allowed in, so he forced himself in. There were riots on both sides. The Federal government helped him enroll and for the duration of his stay there, he had a bodyguard.
2. Greensboro, North Carolina- a group of black youth decided to protest the segregation in all areas. They sat on white busses, went to white parks and sat at white lunch counters in white restaurants.
As the movement grew, whites joined the blacks to fight segregation. Some whites sponsored freedom riders- passes for blacks to go on white busses. Many were slaughtered or dragged off of the busses.
3. Birmingham, Alabama- there were efforts to desegregate the city. Blacks made a huge march. The police wanted to end the march, so they set dogs on the marchers and shot hoses at them. They jailed about 2,000 people and amongst them was Dr. King. There in jail, he wrote “Letters from a Birmingham Jail”, in which he discussed his principles of civil disobedience and his desire for equality. This protest was televised and people were shocked at how the blacks were treated- helped support the Civil Rights movement.
4. Medgar Evers- worked for the NAACP and he was killed outside of his home in Mississippi by white supremacists.
5. University of Alabama- in 1963, Governor Wallace didn’t allow for black students to enroll. Kennedy, who was president at this time, pressured him to allow them in.
6. President Kennedy spoke to the nation about the need for civil rights- he said they have to do something to help these people. This was the first time that the president spoke publicly about the Civil Rights movement. He discussed passing the Civil Rights bill – to help the African Americans gain equality.
In support of this bill, the blacks organized a huge march in Washington D.C. Whites marched alongside the blacks. It was at this march that King made his famous “I have a dream” speech. Not everyone believed in King’s dream. A few weeks after this march, there was a bomb in an African American church, killing four black girls.
In November of 1963, Kennedy was assassinated and his vice president, Lynden B. Johnson, took over. He pushed heavily to get the Civil Rights Act passed. In 1964 it was passed. It stated:
1. Voting protection
2. Opening of all public facilities
3. Commission was set up for equal job opportunities.
The Supreme Court backed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the Heart of Atlanta Motel vs. USA- no segregation in interstate businesses.
Blacks still felt that they didn’t have total voting rights. The 24th amendment abolished the poll tax to fix this.
The blacks organized a march:
1. To get blacks out to vote and make them aware about voting.
2. To make whites aware that blacks are going to vote.
The march was from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery, Alabama.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 got rid of the literacy test and stated that the Attorney General can punish anyone who denies the blacks the right to vote.
The summer of 1964 was the highlight of the Civil Rights movement- from that point and onward, the Civil Rights movement went downhill. Blacks felt that civil disobedience isn’t working and they want to fight. Malcolm X was a more militant leader. He felt that the whites were unnecessary. He said that they’ll have a black identity and nationalism. Later, he went to Mecca and became a Muslim, changing his style somewhat. He was shot in during a NY rally.
In the late 60’s, there were riots across America. The Kerner Commission was set to discuss why the blacks are fighting. It was decided that it’s because they are angry.
Dr. King won the Noble Peace Prize for furtherance of brotherhood amongst men. Dr. King remained a powerful speaker even after splits in the Civil Rights movement. In spring of 1968, he was speaking in Memphis, Tennessee for striking sanitation workers and the next morning he was shot. His death was both sad and ironic.
A couple of months later, Robert F. Kennedy (President Kennedy’s brother) was campaigning for president and he was assassinated. The feeling now was one of disillusionment.
The Woman’s Rights movement has been going on since the 1800’s, since the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Many women felt that there was a glass sealing which was keeping them from getting higher end jobs.
In 1963m Bett Friedan wrote the “Feminine Mystique”- felt that since World War II, women are pushed out of men’s jobs. She wrote that many women want to get out of the home and want more to their lives. She and her book spurred on the feminist movement of the 60’s and 70’s. The term “Ms.” now became envogue.
Steps toward equality for woman-
1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 stated that you can’t discriminate by race or gender.
2. In 1966, the National Organization for Woman was formed. It worked to pass laws for woman. NOW is still a powerful lobby group today.
3. ERA- woman campaigned for an amendment to the constitution stating that woman and men are equal. It was passed in Congress in 1972. In 1982, it failed to become an amendment in the State. ERA brought much controversy- many people opposed it. Phyllis Schlafy was against it. She said that you don’t need an amendment to settle some women’s inferiority complex.
4. Equal Opportunity Act- stated that woman want equal pay for equal work. It passed in 1972.
5. Roe vs. Wade- argued women’s right to abortion. It was said that a women’s body is her own private domain and she could decide. Only up to the sixth month can a woman go pro choice or pro life.
In order to help woman and other minorities, Johnson began Affirmative Action Programs- positive steps to help the minorities. He will make sure that every job and university will accept some minorities.
Some people fought affirmative action because it causes reverse discrimination- whites being discriminated. One person who felt this way was Alan Bakke- he felt he was suffering for reverse discrimination. He felt that he didn’t get into college because blacks got in instead. In the University of California vs. Alan Bakke, they said that yes, his civil rights may have been abridged, but nevertheless, affirmative action is constitutional.
Three other groups that fought for equal rights:
1. Latinos- Spanish speaking people. Many were migrant farmers- work by the season, moving from place to place. Their lives are difficult and the pay is minimal. Cesar Chavez helped the migrant farmers. He worked through legislation to get them some benefits and equality.
2. Native Americans/ American Indians- wanted rights. The formed the American Indian Movement (AIM). This was going to:
a. Restore “red power”- pride to their heritage.
b. Worked with the government to get back all their lands. They brought many cases and won- got back many lands.
3. Disabled Americans- over the years, America has worked to help handicapped people, but in the 60’s and onward, they really made great strides:
a. Kennedy set up a commission to study the problems of the mentally handicapped.
b. Backed the establishment of the Special Olympics.
c. In 1975, passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act.
d. In 1990, passed the Americans with Disabilities Act- forbade discrimination against people with disabilities in the workforce, public facilities, busses, education, parks…
In recent years, this issue received more publicity through actors, actresses…
Domestic policies of Kennedy and Johnson-
Kennedy was the youngest man elected as president and the only Catholic president (everyone else was Protestant) until Obama. He used his youth in his favor- he said that he understands the people’s needs. He was the first televised president and the first to have a televised debate. He looked exciting on TV, as opposed to Nixon, who looked like a fluke. The nation was excited to have a young couple in the White House. People wanted to copy the young couple. In November of 1963, the Kennedys were campaigning in Dallas, Texas in an open motorcade and Lee Harvey Oswald shot Kennedy.
Two domestic programs:
1. Kennedy- New Frontier
a. Space Program- to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. This was successful. In the summer of 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped onto the moon. As a result of the Space Program, there was an increase of science and math in all schools. They started the students when they were young so that they could find the minds that could be the nation’s rocket scientists. There was also an increase in money for space projects. The program cost about $25 billion.
b. Peace Corps- an effort to help poor nations. Young Americans between the ages of 18-25 went to developing countries to help them.
2. Johnson- Great Society
a. Volunteers In Service To America (VISTA)- young college students helped poor American children- helping within America.
b. Office of Economic Opportunity- economic opportunities for every American:
i. Project Head Start- takes low income children and gives them a head start. Gave free education for three to five year olds.
ii. Upward Bound- gives high school students financial aid to get into college.
iii. Job Corps- to find high school dropouts jobs.
c. Elementary and Secondary School Act- gave money to elementary and secondary schools in particular in low income neighborhoods.
d. Medicare- insurance for the elderly- those over 65.
e. Department of Housing and Urban Development gives housing, money for rent, and built houses for low income people.
f. Food Stamp Program- money for food for low income families. To initiate this program, Johnson passed the Food Stamp Act in 1964. In October of 2008, the food stamp program changed its name to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). There were 29 million Americans on Food stamps in 2008- 10% of nation. Two months ago, Obama changed the program- up until now had to be eligible for food stamps- can’t have any savings. Now Obama changed it that you can have up to $100,000 in savings and still be eligible for food stamps.
Foreign Policies of America-
1. Monroe Doctrine- in 1824, the Monroe Doctrine was issued. It stated that America is in charge of the Western hemisphere and Europe should stay out. This set our policy in the western hemisphere.
2. Spanish- American war- in 1898, the US fought the Spanish and won. This victory gave us many of Spain’s colonies in Latin America and elsewhere. One is Puerto Rico. Cuba became a protectorate. America now became an imperial nation.
3. Panama Canal- 1901- 1914. America wanted to build a canal in Panama, so they helped the people in Panama rebel against Columbia and after they gained their independence, the US built a canal in Panama. America wanted canal for trade reasons- it cut from the Atlantic to the Pacific and helped with trade. America had control of the canal till the end of the 1900s. In 1999, we gave the canal back to Panama.
4. Roosevelt corollary/ Bigstick policy- it was an addition to the Monroe doctrine- that the US will get involved in Latin America whenever Latin America does something that America feels is wrong. There was a cartoon at this time showing Roosevelt dragging Latin America behind him- “speak softly and carry a big stick”.
5. Dollar diplomacy- Taft said that we’ll invest in Latin America and we’ll be very involved.
6. Roosevelt made the Good Neighbor policy- an effort to improve relations with Latin America.
Latin America and the 60’s-
Kennedy made the Alliance for Progress- promised Latin America $20 billion as long as they don’t become Communist.
1. Bay of Pigs Invasion- the US government wanted to overthrow Fidel Castro. The CIA, with the approval of Kennedy, trained American Cubans so that one day they could go back and overthrow Castro. These trained Cubans landed at the Bay of Pigs and Castro’s soldiers captured them all (there was a leak in the CIA, so Castro knew about the invasion). This was heavily embarrassing for America.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis- Cuba allowed Russia to build a missile base in Cuba. The US told Cuba to take the missiles down. This was the tensest moment in the Cold War. America was willing to go to the brink of war. Thankfully, the Cubans backed down and dismantled the missiles. America’s pride after the Bay of Pigs invasion was now restored.
3. In 1963, America, England and Russia agreed to nuclear to the Nuclear Test Ban treaty – they agreed to ban testing in the air and space, and agreed to only do it underground.
4. After the Bay of Pig invasion, Khrushchev asked America to get the NATO troops out of Berlin. He assumed that America would listen because they were weak after the Bay of Pigs fiasco. Kennedy didn’t listen, increased help to West Berlin. In response to American aid, Russia built the Berlin Wall through Berlin. The Berlin Wall stopped the flow of Germans from East Berlin to West Berlin. In 1963, Kennedy spoke at the Berlin Wall, saying that it’s a symbol of tyranny. It stood as the symbol of the Cold War, until 1989 when it was torn down at the end of the Cold War.
Important Supreme Court cases of 60’s and 70’s:
Courts in the 60’s and 70’s protected the rights of the accused. The courts were very liberal. Liberals protect the underdogs. President Eisenhower and later President Nixon appointed the two chief justices, Warren and Berger.
SS- Chapter 21
Chapter 21: World War II
Isolationism after World War I-
In the years between the two World Wars, the US was interested in world peace. They didn’t join the League of Nations but they did join conferences which discussed disarmament and signed pacts. Our general ideology after World War I was one of isolationism. Isolation can sometimes be interchanged with neutrality because they are similar.
In the 1930’s, America was trying to recover from the depression. They decided to research why they went to war, as it may be the cause of the depression. Senator General Nye led a whole investigation. It was decided that it was because of the businessmen that we went to war, because they wanted to get rich. This discovery led to further isolationism.
In 1935, the government passed a series of neutrality acts:
1. Not to lend money to a nation at war.
2. Not to do business with any nation at war- only cash and carry business.
In 1937, FDR gave the Quarantine speech, which said that the US will quarantine the patient, not themselves. They will be punishing the warring nations, and not themselves.
Actual events that led up to World War II-
1. Rise of the totalitarian nations- nations that totally controlled the lives of people. In this category falls fascist regimes- extreme nationalism and militarism, which was practiced by Hitler of Germany and Mussolini of Italy. With the help of Italy and Germany, Spain was becoming fascist under Franco.
2. Hitler decided to make Germany into the power that she once was. He decided to take back all the lands that he felt really belonged to Germany, but had to be given up after World War I. An example of one of these territories was Austria. Hitler said that Austria was his land. The Germans were suffering under Austrian control. Hitler had a program- first he announced that the Germans in Austria were mistreated, then he went and took over the land. He did this in Czechoslovakia too. The world watched Hitler do this, but wasn’t sure how to react. When it came to Czechoslovakia, it was a sticky situation for England and France because they promised to help Czechoslovakia in her hour of need. England and France decided to meet with Hitler, in Munich. At the Munich Agreement, Hitler said that after the Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia, he’ll ask for nothing else. Neville Chamberlain (England) agreed. He said that he brought, “peace in our times”. Within six months, Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and took over the whole thing. This policy that England and France tried to use is known as appeasement.
The war began in Europe in September of 1939 with Germany’s invasion of Poland. The US remained neutral, but as the war progressed, Roosevelt looked for a way to get around America’s Neutrality Act. He came up with the Lend Lease Act- allowed for America to send help, ammunition and sell war materials to England. Roosevelt justified this by saying that he has to help any country whose defense is vital to our defense. The US was to be the arsenal of democracy.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked American naval bases in Pearl Harbor. This heavily crippled America’s navy in the Pacific. Roosevelt called this day, a “day that will live in infamy”. This attack fueled American patriotism and Congress voted to go to war.
World War II was over in Europe in May of 1945, but didn’t end in the Pacific until August of 1945.
This war pitted twenty six Allied nations vs. eight Axis nations:
1. Major Allies-
a. England- Churchill
b. Russia- Stalin
c. USA- Roosevelt
2. Major Axis-
a. Germany- Hitler
b. Italy- Mussolini
c. Japan- Hirohito
Throughout the war, the world leaders met. Meetings:
1. Atlantic Charter meeting- Roosevelt and Churchill met on a battleship in the Atlantic Ocean. There they agreed on certain principles of lasting peace such as self determination- all nations decide on their own form of government.
2. Yalta Conference- at the war’s end. FDR, Churchill and Stalin met to discuss the division of Germany and trial for war criminals.
3. Potsdam- in 1945. The Allies- Truman, Stalin and Churchill- decided to force Japan to surrender or else they would use weapons of mass destruction.
In an effort to end the war quickly, the Allies invented the atom bomb. In 1943, a group of scientist from the allied countries led by Robert Oppenheimer began to work on the Manhattan Project- to build an atom bomb. Many German refugees also helped with this project. By July of 1945, Truman was notified that the atom bomb was ready for use. He tried it out in the deserts of New Mexico and it worked. Truman told the Japanese that he’s going to use it if they don’t surrender. They didn’t, so on August 6 and 8, Truman dropped the atom bomb on Hiroshima and then Nagasaki. The instant death toll was over 100,000 people and many more people died from after effects of the radiation. These effects continued for years- for many years afterwards, children were born with defects. The world now entered an atomic age.
There was a debate as to whether the US did the right thing or not. Truman said that the Japanese wouldn’t have surrendered otherwise and many more people would have been killed on both sides. People opposed this, saying that soldiers know that their lives are at stake, but you killed innocent civilians.
The Japanese surrendered and the war was over. American general, Douglas MacArthur, was in the Pacific during World War II and remained in Japan after the war. For the next seven years, Japan was under American control as they transferred to a democracy.
A major focus of World War II was Hitler’s Final Solution- destruction of the Jews. This is an act of genocide- destruction of one race.
American patriotism-
After the bombing on Pearl Harbor, the Americans were all patriotic- were all behind Truman. They gave up a lot- their food was rationed, but they knew that they were doing it for the Allies. Actors and actresses convinced people to buy war bonds.
Woman now took over men’s places and some served in the military and army. At this time, there was a popular song about Rosie the Riveter- about woman who worked in factories. She became slang for woman working in wartime factories. Women’s efforts during the war brought about change in the woman’s work- it was now slightly more accepted for woman to work out of the house. Issues like childcare now became important issues for woman.
About one million African Americans served during World War II. They were in segregated barracks. After the war, there was a change for the blacks- now began with renewed efforts to work for civil rights. In 1948, Truman issued an executive order, which led to the end of racial segregation in the military.
Japanese in America-
American Japanese were called Nisei. Many of these Nisei fought in the American army during World War II. Many even received medals for their bravery, receiving proportionately more than any other battalion. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Americans were fearful of the Nisei. They felt that they wouldn’t be loyal to America. The government was also afraid of the loyalty of the Nisei. The Wartime Relocation Agency took all the Japanese of the West Coast and moved them into gated in camps because they were afraid to have them mingle during the war.
A Japanese man fought the internment. His case reached the Supreme Court, and in Korematsu vs. USA, the judge stated that this is a fair wartime measure. About fifty years after World War II, they said that this wasn’t nice and they reimbursed approximately 60,000 survivors with $20,000.
Demobilization- getting the country back to civilian life after the war. All the troops had to be brought back home and the army had to be cut down. Truman now passed the GI Bill- gave money to soldiers so that they could get readjusted to life, paid for their schooling, gave them money for homes and business loans.
Another part of demobilization is to allow the economy to run on its own- to get rid of price control. When government control is removed, everything still had to remain under control, so the Taft- Hartley bill was passed to control strikes:
1. If you say that you want to go on strike, you must wait eighty days before doing so.
2. Outlawed closed shop- stated that you must join a union if you want to join a certain company.
After World War II, there was a baby boom. The depression and the war were now over and people were excited to settle down and start families.
The election of 1948 was an interesting one- many of the voters were unhappy with Truman. There was an economic mess because of inflation and strikes. Everyone was sure that Dewey was going to win, but they Truman did.
After World War II, in an effort for world peace, all the nations of the world formed the United Nations.
Isolationism after World War I-
In the years between the two World Wars, the US was interested in world peace. They didn’t join the League of Nations but they did join conferences which discussed disarmament and signed pacts. Our general ideology after World War I was one of isolationism. Isolation can sometimes be interchanged with neutrality because they are similar.
In the 1930’s, America was trying to recover from the depression. They decided to research why they went to war, as it may be the cause of the depression. Senator General Nye led a whole investigation. It was decided that it was because of the businessmen that we went to war, because they wanted to get rich. This discovery led to further isolationism.
In 1935, the government passed a series of neutrality acts:
1. Not to lend money to a nation at war.
2. Not to do business with any nation at war- only cash and carry business.
In 1937, FDR gave the Quarantine speech, which said that the US will quarantine the patient, not themselves. They will be punishing the warring nations, and not themselves.
Actual events that led up to World War II-
1. Rise of the totalitarian nations- nations that totally controlled the lives of people. In this category falls fascist regimes- extreme nationalism and militarism, which was practiced by Hitler of Germany and Mussolini of Italy. With the help of Italy and Germany, Spain was becoming fascist under Franco.
2. Hitler decided to make Germany into the power that she once was. He decided to take back all the lands that he felt really belonged to Germany, but had to be given up after World War I. An example of one of these territories was Austria. Hitler said that Austria was his land. The Germans were suffering under Austrian control. Hitler had a program- first he announced that the Germans in Austria were mistreated, then he went and took over the land. He did this in Czechoslovakia too. The world watched Hitler do this, but wasn’t sure how to react. When it came to Czechoslovakia, it was a sticky situation for England and France because they promised to help Czechoslovakia in her hour of need. England and France decided to meet with Hitler, in Munich. At the Munich Agreement, Hitler said that after the Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia, he’ll ask for nothing else. Neville Chamberlain (England) agreed. He said that he brought, “peace in our times”. Within six months, Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and took over the whole thing. This policy that England and France tried to use is known as appeasement.
The war began in Europe in September of 1939 with Germany’s invasion of Poland. The US remained neutral, but as the war progressed, Roosevelt looked for a way to get around America’s Neutrality Act. He came up with the Lend Lease Act- allowed for America to send help, ammunition and sell war materials to England. Roosevelt justified this by saying that he has to help any country whose defense is vital to our defense. The US was to be the arsenal of democracy.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked American naval bases in Pearl Harbor. This heavily crippled America’s navy in the Pacific. Roosevelt called this day, a “day that will live in infamy”. This attack fueled American patriotism and Congress voted to go to war.
World War II was over in Europe in May of 1945, but didn’t end in the Pacific until August of 1945.
This war pitted twenty six Allied nations vs. eight Axis nations:
1. Major Allies-
a. England- Churchill
b. Russia- Stalin
c. USA- Roosevelt
2. Major Axis-
a. Germany- Hitler
b. Italy- Mussolini
c. Japan- Hirohito
Throughout the war, the world leaders met. Meetings:
1. Atlantic Charter meeting- Roosevelt and Churchill met on a battleship in the Atlantic Ocean. There they agreed on certain principles of lasting peace such as self determination- all nations decide on their own form of government.
2. Yalta Conference- at the war’s end. FDR, Churchill and Stalin met to discuss the division of Germany and trial for war criminals.
3. Potsdam- in 1945. The Allies- Truman, Stalin and Churchill- decided to force Japan to surrender or else they would use weapons of mass destruction.
In an effort to end the war quickly, the Allies invented the atom bomb. In 1943, a group of scientist from the allied countries led by Robert Oppenheimer began to work on the Manhattan Project- to build an atom bomb. Many German refugees also helped with this project. By July of 1945, Truman was notified that the atom bomb was ready for use. He tried it out in the deserts of New Mexico and it worked. Truman told the Japanese that he’s going to use it if they don’t surrender. They didn’t, so on August 6 and 8, Truman dropped the atom bomb on Hiroshima and then Nagasaki. The instant death toll was over 100,000 people and many more people died from after effects of the radiation. These effects continued for years- for many years afterwards, children were born with defects. The world now entered an atomic age.
There was a debate as to whether the US did the right thing or not. Truman said that the Japanese wouldn’t have surrendered otherwise and many more people would have been killed on both sides. People opposed this, saying that soldiers know that their lives are at stake, but you killed innocent civilians.
The Japanese surrendered and the war was over. American general, Douglas MacArthur, was in the Pacific during World War II and remained in Japan after the war. For the next seven years, Japan was under American control as they transferred to a democracy.
A major focus of World War II was Hitler’s Final Solution- destruction of the Jews. This is an act of genocide- destruction of one race.
American patriotism-
After the bombing on Pearl Harbor, the Americans were all patriotic- were all behind Truman. They gave up a lot- their food was rationed, but they knew that they were doing it for the Allies. Actors and actresses convinced people to buy war bonds.
Woman now took over men’s places and some served in the military and army. At this time, there was a popular song about Rosie the Riveter- about woman who worked in factories. She became slang for woman working in wartime factories. Women’s efforts during the war brought about change in the woman’s work- it was now slightly more accepted for woman to work out of the house. Issues like childcare now became important issues for woman.
About one million African Americans served during World War II. They were in segregated barracks. After the war, there was a change for the blacks- now began with renewed efforts to work for civil rights. In 1948, Truman issued an executive order, which led to the end of racial segregation in the military.
Japanese in America-
American Japanese were called Nisei. Many of these Nisei fought in the American army during World War II. Many even received medals for their bravery, receiving proportionately more than any other battalion. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Americans were fearful of the Nisei. They felt that they wouldn’t be loyal to America. The government was also afraid of the loyalty of the Nisei. The Wartime Relocation Agency took all the Japanese of the West Coast and moved them into gated in camps because they were afraid to have them mingle during the war.
A Japanese man fought the internment. His case reached the Supreme Court, and in Korematsu vs. USA, the judge stated that this is a fair wartime measure. About fifty years after World War II, they said that this wasn’t nice and they reimbursed approximately 60,000 survivors with $20,000.
Demobilization- getting the country back to civilian life after the war. All the troops had to be brought back home and the army had to be cut down. Truman now passed the GI Bill- gave money to soldiers so that they could get readjusted to life, paid for their schooling, gave them money for homes and business loans.
Another part of demobilization is to allow the economy to run on its own- to get rid of price control. When government control is removed, everything still had to remain under control, so the Taft- Hartley bill was passed to control strikes:
1. If you say that you want to go on strike, you must wait eighty days before doing so.
2. Outlawed closed shop- stated that you must join a union if you want to join a certain company.
After World War II, there was a baby boom. The depression and the war were now over and people were excited to settle down and start families.
The election of 1948 was an interesting one- many of the voters were unhappy with Truman. There was an economic mess because of inflation and strikes. Everyone was sure that Dewey was going to win, but they Truman did.
After World War II, in an effort for world peace, all the nations of the world formed the United Nations.
SS - Chapter 20... more 2 follow
Chapter 20: The Great Depression
In October of 1929, the bottom fell out of the stock market with a huge “bam” and the Great Depression began. How did this happen?
1. Weakness in the overall economy-
a. Farmers weren’t doing so great in the 20’s.
b. Other industries such as the textile, railroad and coal industries weren’t doing so well.
c. The real estate market began to dip.
d. The automobile market began to dip.
e. By the end of the decade, factories were overproducing.
2. Unequal distribution of wealth-
a. Forty percent of the nation was very poor
b. Five percent of the nation owned ninety percent of all the money. Since there was no stable middle class, we were dependant on the spending of a small portion of the population for all the buying.
3. Weak business structure- Coolidge had allowed business to run, have monopolies, and expand immensely. As a result, when one business fell, they all fell because one business was controlling everything.
4. Weak banking structure- about six thousand banks failed almost immediately after the stock market crashed.
5. Inadequate government policies- all government policies that were great for business were terrible for the depression.
a. The government in the 20’s gave tax breaks for the wealthy and business, widening the gap between the rich and the poor.
b. The Federal Reserve System lowered interest rates- this makes people glad to borrow, but led to irresponsible borrowing.
6. Weak international economy-
a. Europe hadn’t picked up since World War I and America did nothing to help them.
b. America placed a tariff on foreign goods, so the economy didn’t pick up.
c. European countries owed America money.
Hoover was president in January of 1929. Hoover was a self-made millionaire. He was an excellent businessman, a humanitarian and was very involved during World War I in the relief effort. However, he didn’t satisfy America at this time.
He tried tremendously to help:
1. Passed laws to increase jobs. During his time, the Hoover Dam was built- brought about new job opportunities.
2. Passed laws to give money to the real estate and railroad companies that were on the verge of bankruptcy. This was called the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
3. Stopped war debts.
Hoover told everyone that prosperity is around the corner- he was upbeat. But history feels that Hoover did too little, too slowly. Hoover was a believer in rugged individualism- a person shouldn’t get handouts, they should make it work.
In the summer of 1932, a group of World War I veterans came to the White House to discuss their bonuses. They wanted to receive these bonuses earlier than was decided upon, but Hoover didn’t allow for this. Hoover told the veterans to go home, but they didn’t and stayed on the lawn. Tear gas was sprayed to get them off the lawn.
Hoover believed in the Puritan work ethic- Americans can do it, they just have to work hard.
Human impact of the Great Depression-
Unemployment was at an all time high. 25% of the work force and 40% of African Americans were unemployed. African Americans and unskilled workers were hit the hardest. People selling items in the street and hobos now became a common sight.
Life in the city was difficult. Many people lost their homes. They lived in cardboard shacks, and the towns were called Hooverville. People would sleep on park benches with newspapers covering them- known as Hoover blankets.
Rural life was not much better. Farmers that were already depressed became even more depressed. In the 1930’s, there was a prolonged drought along much of the West. These states were called the Dustbowl. Some of the farmers in Oklahoma moved to California- called Oakies. John Steinbeck wrote about them in a book called “The Grapes of Wrath”.
The suffering of the people shaped the culture of the time. People now looked for inexpensive forms of leisure. Movies shut down. Many of the movies and novels of this time were escapist novels.
In 1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt became president. He ranked as one of the best presidents the US ever had. He inspired support and confidence in the American people. He was a master politician and he knew how to connect to the people to have them back him in what he was doing.
FDR was also a controversial figure:
1. He tried to change the Supreme Court when they went against him.
2. He ran for a third term in office and then a fourth. After he died in 1951, the 22nd amendment was passed, stating that one could only be president for two terms.
Roosevelt surrounded himself with bright people, therefore he was nicknamed the “Brain Trust”. These smart people influenced his way of thinking. He appointed the first woman to the Cabinet- Frances Perkins.
Another influence on Roosevelt’s way of life was his wife, Eleanor. She was a great humanitarian and encouraged her husband to help the poor and needy. After Roosevelt’s death, Eleanor became a leader in human rights issues. She was one of the key writers of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This became the blueprint for the dogma of the United Nations.
Roosevelt introduced his program to end the Great Depression- the New Deal. He had fireside chats (spoke on the radio, which was kept on the mantle over the fireplace), to speak to the nation and tell them what he was doing. He divided his program into three basic goals:
1. Relief- direct relief for those that are suffering.
2. Recovery- for the economy, so it grows again.
3. Reform- so that something like this should never happen again.
FDR passed hundreds of laws to bring relief, reform and recovery:
1. Relief- passed laws which made hundreds of jobs and money for the people.
2. Recovery- he passed many laws to help businesses. He encouraged people to go out and shop.
a. National Recovery Act (NRA) - gave the government control of business somewhat in order to help them recover. It also set up codes of competition- have to maintain certain wages and prices. Many people loved the NRA and some even named daughters after it, calling them Nira.
b. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) - recovery for the farmers. Encouraged farmers to throw out their surplus and reduce their crop by paying them to do so. The point of this was that there would now be a greater demand.
3. Reform- many reforms were passed:
a. Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) - set up in order to regulate stocks.
b. Social Security Act (SSA) –
i. Gave benefits to the retirees. This was instituted so that there would be no old men starving. This was the start of the Social Security system that we have today- both the person and the government put away money towards his retirement.
ii. Gave benefits for unemployed, homeless, children, elderly and handicapped.
c. Wagner Act- helped the unions. The New Deal in general helped the labor unions.
Roosevelt in general wanted to help the worker through these fore-mentioned laws. He also wanted to work together with businesses. This was much harder because:
1. Not all businesses wanted to listen to him.
2. The NRA was later declared unconstitutional.
He worked intensely with the labor unions. Labor unions became very strong at this point. The AFL (skilled workers) joined together with the CIO (unskilled workers). Joining is often a sign of strength.
Controversy surrounding the New Deal-
Not everyone agreed with everything that the New Deal was doing. FDR was a pragmatic person and was interested in bringing change. He didn’t have a specific way of doing things, he did whatever worked.
FDR was influenced by populists and progressives. He wanted to use the government to help the people. He tremendously increased the power of government over businesses and the stock exchange. Roosevelt used an economic idea called priming the pump- you put a little bit of water in first to get the pump to start working. He felt that if you would put money in the economy, it would start to work on its own. The legal term for this is called deficit spending.
Two Supreme Court cases that nixed the New Deal laws:
1. Schechter Poultry vs. USA- the Supreme Court ruled that the NRA was unconstitutional because the NRA regulated intrastate trade, which was for the state to take care of, not the government. It was felt that in general, the executive branch is taking on too much power.
2. USA vs. Butler- the AAA was struck down. The Supreme Court said that the Federal government is taking power that belonged to the states. Farms are local, so it’s for the state government to regulate.
Opposition to FDR’s programs:
1. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) changed the Tennessee Valley. It used to be that it was poverty stricken, with no jobs. A dam was built, which brought jobs and hydroelectricity. Some people looked as this as good and some looked at it as Socialism.
2. Court Packing Bill- FDR was unhappy that the Supreme Court kept on declaring his laws as unconstitutional. He wanted to change the court, so he told Congress to either kick them out when they turned 70 or add six more judges. Congress said that they aren’t going to pass this bill.
FDR ran for a third term, breaking the tradition. Then he ran for a fourth. People looked at his as a dictator. In 1951, the 22nd amendment was passed stating that a president can’t run for more than two terms.
Different groups of opposition:
1. Republicans, the wealthy, businessmen- they felt that the government was becoming too powerful and that the constitution was being threatened. They felt that the New Deal taxes were unfair to the wealthy, and that socialism was being brought in place of democracy.
2. Socialists and progressives- said that FDR isn’t doing enough. Eugene Debs was a socialist. He felt that wealth in a nation should be distributed more evenly. There were extremists.
3. Woman and African Americans- felt that many of Roosevelt’s projects were helping the white males. They felt that they were getting less pay for the same job.
Three people who opposed FDR- these people were home grown demagogues- they were an outgrowth of the people’s pain and suffering:
1. Francis Townshend- he came up with a program to help all the elderly in this country.
2. Father Coughlin- was a priest. He had a radio show in which he spoke out against the rich. He said that the rich are destroying America. He spoke about Jews so much, saying that they are the businessmen.
3. Huey Long- he was from Louisiana. He was trying to run for the presidency. He was a senator. Long was a flashy fellow. He promised the people money and that he would get them out of the depression. He was assassinated in 1935.
Assessment of the New Deal-
1. Most historians feel that it was World War II that took the nation out of the depression.
2. Nevertheless, the New Deal did help people cope with the depression. Some felt that the New Deal helped prevent further economic and social disaster.
3. Restored confidence in the government.
4. The government assumed a role and responsibility in people’s lives.
5. Increased the nation’s debt because of the deficit spending.
In October of 1929, the bottom fell out of the stock market with a huge “bam” and the Great Depression began. How did this happen?
1. Weakness in the overall economy-
a. Farmers weren’t doing so great in the 20’s.
b. Other industries such as the textile, railroad and coal industries weren’t doing so well.
c. The real estate market began to dip.
d. The automobile market began to dip.
e. By the end of the decade, factories were overproducing.
2. Unequal distribution of wealth-
a. Forty percent of the nation was very poor
b. Five percent of the nation owned ninety percent of all the money. Since there was no stable middle class, we were dependant on the spending of a small portion of the population for all the buying.
3. Weak business structure- Coolidge had allowed business to run, have monopolies, and expand immensely. As a result, when one business fell, they all fell because one business was controlling everything.
4. Weak banking structure- about six thousand banks failed almost immediately after the stock market crashed.
5. Inadequate government policies- all government policies that were great for business were terrible for the depression.
a. The government in the 20’s gave tax breaks for the wealthy and business, widening the gap between the rich and the poor.
b. The Federal Reserve System lowered interest rates- this makes people glad to borrow, but led to irresponsible borrowing.
6. Weak international economy-
a. Europe hadn’t picked up since World War I and America did nothing to help them.
b. America placed a tariff on foreign goods, so the economy didn’t pick up.
c. European countries owed America money.
Hoover was president in January of 1929. Hoover was a self-made millionaire. He was an excellent businessman, a humanitarian and was very involved during World War I in the relief effort. However, he didn’t satisfy America at this time.
He tried tremendously to help:
1. Passed laws to increase jobs. During his time, the Hoover Dam was built- brought about new job opportunities.
2. Passed laws to give money to the real estate and railroad companies that were on the verge of bankruptcy. This was called the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
3. Stopped war debts.
Hoover told everyone that prosperity is around the corner- he was upbeat. But history feels that Hoover did too little, too slowly. Hoover was a believer in rugged individualism- a person shouldn’t get handouts, they should make it work.
In the summer of 1932, a group of World War I veterans came to the White House to discuss their bonuses. They wanted to receive these bonuses earlier than was decided upon, but Hoover didn’t allow for this. Hoover told the veterans to go home, but they didn’t and stayed on the lawn. Tear gas was sprayed to get them off the lawn.
Hoover believed in the Puritan work ethic- Americans can do it, they just have to work hard.
Human impact of the Great Depression-
Unemployment was at an all time high. 25% of the work force and 40% of African Americans were unemployed. African Americans and unskilled workers were hit the hardest. People selling items in the street and hobos now became a common sight.
Life in the city was difficult. Many people lost their homes. They lived in cardboard shacks, and the towns were called Hooverville. People would sleep on park benches with newspapers covering them- known as Hoover blankets.
Rural life was not much better. Farmers that were already depressed became even more depressed. In the 1930’s, there was a prolonged drought along much of the West. These states were called the Dustbowl. Some of the farmers in Oklahoma moved to California- called Oakies. John Steinbeck wrote about them in a book called “The Grapes of Wrath”.
The suffering of the people shaped the culture of the time. People now looked for inexpensive forms of leisure. Movies shut down. Many of the movies and novels of this time were escapist novels.
In 1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt became president. He ranked as one of the best presidents the US ever had. He inspired support and confidence in the American people. He was a master politician and he knew how to connect to the people to have them back him in what he was doing.
FDR was also a controversial figure:
1. He tried to change the Supreme Court when they went against him.
2. He ran for a third term in office and then a fourth. After he died in 1951, the 22nd amendment was passed, stating that one could only be president for two terms.
Roosevelt surrounded himself with bright people, therefore he was nicknamed the “Brain Trust”. These smart people influenced his way of thinking. He appointed the first woman to the Cabinet- Frances Perkins.
Another influence on Roosevelt’s way of life was his wife, Eleanor. She was a great humanitarian and encouraged her husband to help the poor and needy. After Roosevelt’s death, Eleanor became a leader in human rights issues. She was one of the key writers of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This became the blueprint for the dogma of the United Nations.
Roosevelt introduced his program to end the Great Depression- the New Deal. He had fireside chats (spoke on the radio, which was kept on the mantle over the fireplace), to speak to the nation and tell them what he was doing. He divided his program into three basic goals:
1. Relief- direct relief for those that are suffering.
2. Recovery- for the economy, so it grows again.
3. Reform- so that something like this should never happen again.
FDR passed hundreds of laws to bring relief, reform and recovery:
1. Relief- passed laws which made hundreds of jobs and money for the people.
2. Recovery- he passed many laws to help businesses. He encouraged people to go out and shop.
a. National Recovery Act (NRA) - gave the government control of business somewhat in order to help them recover. It also set up codes of competition- have to maintain certain wages and prices. Many people loved the NRA and some even named daughters after it, calling them Nira.
b. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) - recovery for the farmers. Encouraged farmers to throw out their surplus and reduce their crop by paying them to do so. The point of this was that there would now be a greater demand.
3. Reform- many reforms were passed:
a. Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) - set up in order to regulate stocks.
b. Social Security Act (SSA) –
i. Gave benefits to the retirees. This was instituted so that there would be no old men starving. This was the start of the Social Security system that we have today- both the person and the government put away money towards his retirement.
ii. Gave benefits for unemployed, homeless, children, elderly and handicapped.
c. Wagner Act- helped the unions. The New Deal in general helped the labor unions.
Roosevelt in general wanted to help the worker through these fore-mentioned laws. He also wanted to work together with businesses. This was much harder because:
1. Not all businesses wanted to listen to him.
2. The NRA was later declared unconstitutional.
He worked intensely with the labor unions. Labor unions became very strong at this point. The AFL (skilled workers) joined together with the CIO (unskilled workers). Joining is often a sign of strength.
Controversy surrounding the New Deal-
Not everyone agreed with everything that the New Deal was doing. FDR was a pragmatic person and was interested in bringing change. He didn’t have a specific way of doing things, he did whatever worked.
FDR was influenced by populists and progressives. He wanted to use the government to help the people. He tremendously increased the power of government over businesses and the stock exchange. Roosevelt used an economic idea called priming the pump- you put a little bit of water in first to get the pump to start working. He felt that if you would put money in the economy, it would start to work on its own. The legal term for this is called deficit spending.
Two Supreme Court cases that nixed the New Deal laws:
1. Schechter Poultry vs. USA- the Supreme Court ruled that the NRA was unconstitutional because the NRA regulated intrastate trade, which was for the state to take care of, not the government. It was felt that in general, the executive branch is taking on too much power.
2. USA vs. Butler- the AAA was struck down. The Supreme Court said that the Federal government is taking power that belonged to the states. Farms are local, so it’s for the state government to regulate.
Opposition to FDR’s programs:
1. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) changed the Tennessee Valley. It used to be that it was poverty stricken, with no jobs. A dam was built, which brought jobs and hydroelectricity. Some people looked as this as good and some looked at it as Socialism.
2. Court Packing Bill- FDR was unhappy that the Supreme Court kept on declaring his laws as unconstitutional. He wanted to change the court, so he told Congress to either kick them out when they turned 70 or add six more judges. Congress said that they aren’t going to pass this bill.
FDR ran for a third term, breaking the tradition. Then he ran for a fourth. People looked at his as a dictator. In 1951, the 22nd amendment was passed stating that a president can’t run for more than two terms.
Different groups of opposition:
1. Republicans, the wealthy, businessmen- they felt that the government was becoming too powerful and that the constitution was being threatened. They felt that the New Deal taxes were unfair to the wealthy, and that socialism was being brought in place of democracy.
2. Socialists and progressives- said that FDR isn’t doing enough. Eugene Debs was a socialist. He felt that wealth in a nation should be distributed more evenly. There were extremists.
3. Woman and African Americans- felt that many of Roosevelt’s projects were helping the white males. They felt that they were getting less pay for the same job.
Three people who opposed FDR- these people were home grown demagogues- they were an outgrowth of the people’s pain and suffering:
1. Francis Townshend- he came up with a program to help all the elderly in this country.
2. Father Coughlin- was a priest. He had a radio show in which he spoke out against the rich. He said that the rich are destroying America. He spoke about Jews so much, saying that they are the businessmen.
3. Huey Long- he was from Louisiana. He was trying to run for the presidency. He was a senator. Long was a flashy fellow. He promised the people money and that he would get them out of the depression. He was assassinated in 1935.
Assessment of the New Deal-
1. Most historians feel that it was World War II that took the nation out of the depression.
2. Nevertheless, the New Deal did help people cope with the depression. Some felt that the New Deal helped prevent further economic and social disaster.
3. Restored confidence in the government.
4. The government assumed a role and responsibility in people’s lives.
5. Increased the nation’s debt because of the deficit spending.
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